Effects of heavy rainfall and shade on sea turtle sex determination

 Climate change is warming ocean water and changing weather patterns. Sea turtles who have strong nesting site fidelity are vulnerable to changing conditions. The temperature of the nest during the incubation period can determine both the sex and the survival of the embryos. A 1:1 sex ratio is achieved at the optimal incubation temperature. Climate change has the potential to seriously disrupt sea turtle sex ratios which could cause a sex ratio imbalance and a further decline in sea turtle populations. This study focused on the impact of shade and heavy rainfall on nest temperature of hawksbill and green sea turtles. The study found that heavy rainfall and shade reduced the nest temperature by a few degrees which was able to tip the temperature scale into a male dominated range for both species. While a male dominated sea turtle population could cause a severe decline in sea turtle populations, the researchers ended the study with an optimistic outlook. There is potential for shading and irrigation of sea turtle nests to offset the effects of rising global temperatures. While sea turtles are threatened by human-induced climate change, well informed intervention could help to mitigate the detrimental effects on sea turtles. 

Source: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00227-020-03800-z.pdf

The Cutest Frog: Desert Rain Frog

 

I'm sure that most of you already know about the desert rain frog from its viral squeaking video from a few years ago(video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBkWhkAZ9ds), where the desert rain frog is showing a display of self-defense that is more cute than terrifying.  Did you know that is not the only comical behavior of this frog though?  Pretty much the entire existence of this frog is funny.  For instance, they have an extremely odd way of mating.  In order to mate, the male glues himself to the back of the female because of their size difference and how round they are.  Desert rain frogs also puff up to make themselves even rounder as a method of self-defense in an attempt to appear larger which just makes them look even cuter.  The way they move around is also very awkward because of their general body shape, but despite that, they are still efficient at burying themselves!  You can watch them dig in this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNlN_neSgxs

Desert rain frogs are not common pets at the moment because they are considered near threatened on the IUCN Red List and they are also not domesticated.  The few places that do sell them as pets usually sell wild-caught frogs or frogs that have not been through many cycles of breeding in captivity, so they do not do well in captivity yet.  I hope to own one someday though as it is my dream pet!

Photo sources: 

https://www.treehugger.com/meet-the-desert-rain-frog-worlds-cutest-amphibian-4863402

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reddit.com%2Fr%2Ffrogs%2Fcomments%2Fpkq74c%2Fdoes_anyone_know_where_i_could_buy_a_common_rain%2F&psig=AOvVaw383Vxa6twPIokI7DukzkJn&ust=1651029791226000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCLDJrLTjsPcCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fk7w5wn%2Fhow-do-frogs-mate-science-adhesives&psig=AOvVaw1yHMYNhLK7bGQQ-eMwxyrN&ust=1651029825580000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCNDu98TjsPcCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

Squirt for Class Mascot

 I nominate Squirt, the baby Common Musk Turtle (Sternotherus odoratus), for our class mascot!

Squirt is very tiny and very cute. Everybody was lining up to wait their turn at holding and getting a picture with the baby. The more time we spent holding Squirt, the more active Squirt became. People were making jokes about putting the tiny turtle in their pocket and taking Squirt home. The reaction of the class and the reaction of Squirt towards us makes this Common Musk Turtle the perfect candidate for our Herpetology class Mascot! I mean just look at that face! 

Cryptobranchus Alleganiensis (hellbenders)

The hellbender in the early years of civilization was viewed in unbelievable and weird ways since not much knowledge was known about this type of salamander. The salamander got its name from looking like a "creature from hell" that was returning. In the middle ages the people believed that these salamanders were born from fire also in some languages which wasn't noted in the article, the world salamander means "fire lizard'. From this meaning I could understand why someone would identify this salamander as being born from fire, its flat head and folded skin does look like it could've been burned because when skin is burned it creates a flaky folded skin. In contrast if you really look this salamander, the hellbender looks more soggy than burned. A funny note from Leonardo da Vinci; salamanders "has no digestive organ, gets no food but from fire which renews its scaly skin." From this comment, how could a creature live underwater and consume fire? Did they believe that fire lived inside this salamander? Did they think it didn't have gill slits?  The only reason they thought these were born from fire was because of it being seen scurrying out of damp log that were burned for fuel. This being seen wouldn't the salamander want to stay under the log or new the site of the deforestation so it could consume it's "source of food". 

The attitude that is depicted in this article describes the negative viewpoint on this salamander because of its abnormal appearance of a flat head and folded skin. The Cryptobranchus Alleganiensis is protected in North Carolina, but its habitat has been impacted by dams. The dams have caused the free-flowing water to be slow flowing which isn't suitable for the hellbenders. I hope that this salamander would continue to survive because it looks similar to the first discovered amphibians like the Tiktaalik with its flat head shape. I also think it would be important for generations to see this amphibian living rather than in a museum so they could study it.  The author of the article does justify the facts of this salamander which leads to a positive out look of the Cryptobranchus Alleganiensis. I think people from the middle ages just didn't have knowledge of creatures and viewed a lot of them as mythical with powers from the "Gods". Majority of the creatures viewed as evil were actually harmless.

Class Mascot: Squirt

 

I think that Squirt (Squirtle) the musk turtle would be a great class mascot!  Squirt was a bit shy at first but once they got used to us they came out of their shell.  Squirt is also very photogenic and cute which are good qualities for a mascot.  Everybody loved Squirt and quite a few people in the class have taken a photo with and/or of them!

Class Mascot Nominee

 I nominate the Chelydra serpentina (Eastern Snapping Turtle) to be our class mascot! 

I nominated this species because they are such ferocious turtles, I mean look at how much of an attitude little Timothy had! Their morphology allows them to easily defend themselves with their incredibly powerful jaw and big heads, which allow a lot of power to be put into their bite. I have also always found their carapace and tail shape really interesting. Their carapace has very prominent keels, which have always reminded me of Bowser's shell from Super Mario. Their tails also have prominent ridges along them. I think these turtles have a very unique morphology that makes you not want to mess with them but find them fascinating at the same time. 

I also think that this species deserves to be our mascot because they have been harvested throughout history to make soup. I believe making them our mascot could help people become educated on how awesome these creatures are so that they are respected more rather than used for soup. 

Class Mascot

 

                                                                    Class Mascot Nominee 

The species I nominate for our class mascot is the Chelydra serpentina which is the eastern (common) snapping turtle. I think this should be our mascot because on one of our fields on March 22nd, we saw one and it was a fierce little guy that was angry and everyone was very excited and sort of scared it would harm us (but we knew it really wouldn't). It was nice to see us come together as a class and think how adorable the little snapping turtle was while it opened it mouth to show it's tiny peak shaped mouth.

Also, I've liked turtles since I was a kid. My mom use to buy me and my brother a turtle and I remember always wanting it to walk around the house without miss placing the turtle so I would tie a  balloon around its shell.

Mascot Nominee: Squirt the Musk Turtle

 I nominate the smallest little baby musk turtle we saw on our very last herpetology field trip for our class mascot! The musk turtle, scientific name of Sternotherus odoratus, is part of the Kinosternidae family and are found throughout the eastern and south eastern United States in aquatic habitats. 

This turtle species has many characteristic features that can be used in identification, such as: barbels on the chin and neck, stripes from the nose to the neck, a reduced plastron, and rectangular pectoral scutes (while the mud turtle's is triangular). 

The class decided to name this baby Squirt, both because of his small size and in honor of the Pokémon Squirtle. This was the smallest turtle I have ever gotten to hold, but it had a very big personality! I nominate Squirt for our class mascot, because everyone loved him and he's so stinkin cute, he deserves it! 

Class Mascot

 I have two nominees for class mascot. The first is Snoop, my friends pet ball python. Second is Leo, my former pet veiled chameleon. 

Class Mascot nominee

For our class mascot, I nominate this baby Common Musk Turtle, or Sternotherus odoratus, that we had the pleasure of encountering on our last field trip to Donnelley Wildlife Management Area. I believe they were named Squirt. At first, Squirt was shy and stunned, then after a while they became very comfortable and quite confident and active to the point they were practically running off my classmates' hands. I think this baby musk would make a good mascot because their personality represents how we as a class have also grown in our confidence. While Squirt grew more confident in their ability to walk on human hands, my peers and I grew more confident in our herpetology knowledge throughout the course. Also, just look at those eyes and algae covered shell... too cute. 

 

Herps in the News- spotted tree frog breeding program

Second chance: 80 critically endangered spotted tree frogs to be released into Kosciuszko National Park

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/apr/18/second-chance-80-critically-endangered-spotted-tree-frogs-to-be-released-into-kosciuszko-national-park

Much of Australia, specifically the state of New South Wales, was hit hard by bush fires during the summers of 2019 and 2020. One of many species that was negatively impacted by these forest fires were the spotted tree frog(Litoria speceri). Another setback that affected these frogs was a deadly disease in 2001, although the specifics were not mentioned in the article. From 250-300 individuals reduced to only 10 after the fires, a breeding program successfully released 80 back into the NSW national park. A quote from the Department of Planning Environment’s threatened species officer states that the frog is “fundamental to the maintenance of the ecosystem health in NSW upland rivers.” The tadpoles consume algae in large quantities as well as provide food for other species, contributing to a network of ecosystem interactions. Conservation efforts are impressive in Australia where the rate of extinction is the highest in the world. The Saving our Species program in NSW has funding of over $175 million over 10 years. There is a hopeful outlook for many of Australia’s wildlife, including the spotted tree frog. 

 

Article Review: The Effects of Traffic Noise on Tadpole Behavior and Development

Article written by Erica Castaneda, Vernell R. Leavings, Reed F. Noss, and Molly K. Grace

We all know how annoying traffic noise can be when we’re trying to get a good nights sleep or simply some relaxation, but we are not the only ones effected. It has been proven that many other species that have to deal with this level of noise are often more stressed out, which impacts their immune function, parental care ability, defense against predators, problems with communication, and much more. This study, published in the Urban Ecosystems journal, specifically looked at how this can change a tadpoles behavior and  development. Many frogs and toads choose to lay their eggs in roadside ditches, as there really aren’t as many predators around; however as I'm sure you know, the side of the road is not the best place to be having babies! They studied both Cuban Treefrog and Southern Toad tadpoles with a control group (experiencing no traffic sounds) and an experimental group (experiencing constant traffic sounds). Overall they found that the tadpoles subjected to traffic noise increased their activity levels, decreased their food consumption, but it did not seem to have an overall effect on metamorphosis. This is important to consider, as higher activity rates have been associated with lower predation survival. 

While this study did not find that traffic noise detrimentally impacted metamorphosis of tadpoles, they did find that it was at the very least, stress inducing. They only tested for the effect of traffic noise, but there are many other detrimental factors that could impact anuran success and development in roadside ditches, such as pollution and other human activities. This study is important, as it reminds us that the things we do may have unexpected impacts and consequences for other living organisms around us. Being conscious of our impact is the first step in working to counteract those effects and better allow for the success of all kinds of life!

Article Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11252-020-00933-3

Image Link (example of roadside ditch): https://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/How-can-I-get-rid-of-standing-water-in-3813707.php#photo-3366089

Article Review: By-catch mortality of beaked Sea Snake Hydrophis schistosus (Daudin, 1803) by entanglement in shore-seine operation in Goa-India

Title: By-catch mortality of beaked Sea Snake Hydrophis schistosus (Daudin, 1803) by entanglement in shore-seine operation in Goa-India

Authors: Gangadhar Tambre, Sambhaji Mote, Kalyan De, Deepa Yogi, Mahesh Jadhav, Baban Ingole, Tapas Chatterjee, and Mandar Nanajkar

Journal Article: Acta Biologica 

Link: https://wnus.edu.pl/ab/en/issue/1195/article/18975/ 

On the Caranzalem-Miramar coast within the Mandovi estuary, the authors would go out to the beach twice a week from August-September of 2017-2018 to count every entangled sea snake brought in as by-catch. They would release the live snakes and take back the deceased snakes to their lab for analysis. A total of 1,448 individuals of H.schistosus, or the beaked nose sea snake, were caught in shore-seine nets. About 90% of those snakes were juveniles or sub-adults. Every operation of shore-seine practices had a very high by-catch rate of sea snakes with about 20-60 H.schistosus individuals entangled. This study showed an exceptionally high by-catch rate of sea snakes compared to similar studies conducted within 100 km of the research area. The authors also performed gut content analysis and found that about 80% of H. schistosus had recently fed on the catfish A.jella, indicating a prey preference. The researchers implied that H.schistosus would follow A.jella into the estuary to feed on as well as take advantage of the nursery properties of the habitat. These catfish were also recorded as a big by-catch species for the area. The article stated that this rate of by-catch for the beaked nose sea snakes could possibly mean a broad-scale scale effect on the entire ecosystem, the benthic food chain, commercial fishermen, and local subsistence fishers. The beaked nose sea snake is a top predator that has very little scientific literature about population ecology, mortality, or environmental influences. This study indicated that this estuary was a very important habitat for this species, especially the juveniles. Which are crucial for the population control of the A.jella who otherwise would dominate the local Gao-Indian waters. This means that the economically important species would diminish in the face of the "voracious feeding" catfish, which would cost fishing companies a lot of money. This article adds to our understanding of reptiles because it shows not only that the commonly known sea turtle by-catch is going on worldwide, but the by-catch of other reptiles such as sea snakes is occurring. One would think that a sea snake would easily escape entanglement, but the results of mostly juveniles who recently fed on also captured species show that this assumption is not true. Looking at the picture below shows just how many sea snakes are brought in as by-catch and that there is a need for change. This research is valuable because it highlights this atrocity and the necessity of awareness. Local fishermen and commercial fishing companies need to be aware that this is a problem that could affect the whole marine ecosystem that they depend on for survival or profit. Also, this brings a call for regulations and policies on nets, mesh size, seining practices, and speedy releases of by-catch. 

Article Review - Color Change in Panther Chameleons

    Panther chameleons have two layers of specialized cells, known as iridophores, within their skin that contain nanocrystals. By relaxing or exciting their skin they are capable of manipulating these nanocrystals and reflect different wavelengths to change color. There are several functions to this unique trait, such as maintaining a stable body temperature, attracting mates, reflecting their mood, and defending their territory. Chameleons are not the only squamate that utilize color as means of combative behavior and establishing dominance, for example, within the family Dactyloidae, anole lizards can gauge how strong their opponents are based on how colorful their dewlap is. Research on this topic is important in understanding the evolution of diverse methods of communication within squamates. 

    Researchers examined changes in behavior and color (visible and UV) to better understand how the male panther chameleon, Furcifer pardalis, utilizes their color change ability to express their dominance in male-male combative displays. After many trials of combative encounters, researchers found that the males with more prominent coloration on their bands were more likely to win the encounter and take control over the territory. Losers of the altercation exhibited much darker colors which can be identified as a sign of submission. They also found evidence of UV coloration but it did contribute to the victory of the more dominant male so it is likely for another purpose, such as attracting mates or most likely a defense mechanism to avoid being eaten by birds because birds struggle to see the UV wavelength emitted by F. pardalis. 

    In conclusion color change in chameleons can function in a variety of different ways. There is still lots of possibilities for future research, for example, studies that examine the cost to benefit ratio for energy expenditure would provide insight on the impact color change has on thermoregulatory mechanisms of chameleons. 

Citation:

Dollion, A. Y., Meylan, S., Marquis, O., Leroux-Coyau, M., & Herrel, A. (2022). Do male panther chameleons use different aspects of color change to settle disputes? Die Naturwissenschaften., 109(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-022-01784-y 

Article Review: Jumping with adhesion: landing surface incline alters impact force and body kinematics in crested geckos

The article I chose looks at the mechanics of jumping and adhesion in crested geckos.  The research looks into body position of crested geckos as they jump and if their body position changes depending on the angle of the surface they are jumping onto and if it causes impact force to vary.  This work is interesting because it helps us to better understand the behavior of geckos and if geckos vary their body position to reduce impact.  It was found that crested geckos use only one body position and do not change it based on angle variation of their jumps.  The part of their body that touches the surface first though varies based on the angle.  For example, the belly touches the surface first when jumping to a horizontal surface.  It was also found that crested geckos lift their tails up when they jump.  However, they only used crested geckos with tails in this experiment and crested geckos do not grow their tails back when they lose them.  The article states that they believe this would change body position but they did not study it.  The authors of this article are: Timothy E. Higham, Mara N. S. Hofmann, Michelle Modert, Marc Thielen & Thomas Speck.  The article was published in Scientific Reports vol. 11.  

Link to article: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02033-4

I was especially interested in this article because I have a crested gecko named Scramble.  Scramble is about 8 years old and when I adopted him he did not have a tail.  I decided to record him to see how his horizontal jump looked after reading this article.  The video quality is not very good, but you can see he has almost the same body angle as the geckos in Figure 4 from the article.  His back appears to be arched slightly more and his head angled up more than the geckos with tails though.  It is difficult to tell for sure though because of the poor camera quality.  I think it would be really interesting for a follow-up study to be done on tailless crested geckos!

Article Review: Bioluminescence in Pitvipers

Author’s Name(s): Paul, Laurence & Mendyk, Robert

Name of Journal: Herpetological Review

Link:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert-Mendyk/publication/352465131_Glow_and_Behold_Biofluorescence_and_New_Insights_on_the_Tails_of_Pitvipers_Viperidae_Crotalinae_and_Other_Snakes/links/60ca3620299bf1cd71d5169d/Glow-and-Behold-Biofluorescence-and-New-Insights-on-the-Tails-of-Pitvipers-Viperidae-Crotalinae-and-Other-Snakes.pdf 

My article investigated tail fluorescence in pit vipers and how it could be used to attract prey. Bioluminescence has been observed in many species of amphibians and reptiles, but has not been well researched (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). This research was inspired by a group of captive Hagen’s pit vipers that exhibited tail fluorescence. This brought up the question of whether all Crotalinae have this trait or if it had something to do with these individuals being in captivity (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). Laurence and Mendyk (2021) used fluorescent photography to capture tail fluorescence in ten genera of pit vipers. They used both wild and captive individuals to investigate if this trait was correlated with captivity. One thing I found interesting was that some of the individuals they photographed were roadkill victims. This is because many of the species they were working with are venomous so using roadkill samples allows them to avoid the dangers of handling these species. They observed tail fluorescence in 88.6% of the Crotalinae specimen. They also found that how much of the tail was fluorescent and what color it was varied based on the specimen’s age and species. Since this fluorescence was observed in both wild and captive individuals, they concluded that is a common trait in Crotalinae and it was not derived from captivity. They also found that when they observed captive individuals over time, the amount of tail fluorescence that was observed decreased and it was different between females and males. They found that species who had conspicuous tail coloration in juveniles more commonly had tail fluorescence. An example of conspicuous tail coloration in juveniles would be the Agkistrodon piscivorus and Agkistrodon contortrix. In lab we saw two juvenile specimens in jars, they both had the lighter tail tip. I included Figure 1. From the text where you can see the lighter tail of a young Cottonmouth with tail fluorescence in panel C. 

The research by Laurence and Mendyk (2021) adds to our understanding of how pitvipers use their tails. Since fluorescence is limited to their tail rather than based on their body patterning, it is clear it has some specific function (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). The researchers concluded that this function is prey capture. In many crotalinae species, the conspicuous tail color in juveniles allows them to use caudal luring (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). This means that they can wiggle their tail around to mimic a worm, tricking their prey into approaching (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). Therefore, fluorescence would help draw the attention of prey to their tail. As they get older, their diet shifts and they no longer eat prey that would fall for this mechanism, explaining why tail fluorescence is not as strong in adults (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). They also discovered that grass that is in the diet of rattlesnakes’ prey, has similar structure/fluorescence to the rattlesnakes’ rattle. Meaning, rattlesnakes can use their fluorescent rattle to blend into their background to avoid startling their prey as they approach. Both of these methods are ways that Crotaline species can use this tail fluorescence to help capture prey. This allows us to have a better understanding of how these species hunt and use their tail. 

This research is not only valuable because it provides us with more information about how bioluminescence is used in reptiles, but it also helps us better understand the evolution of the rattle and where bioluminescence originated. Since tail fluorescence appears to be important to caudal luring, we can use this information to infer that species who have not been included in bioluminescent research but use this mechanism, likely have tail fluorescence. This allows us to see which groups do/do not have this trait so we can pinpoint where it appears on the phylogenetic tree. Since rattlesnakes are a “newer” branch in Crotalinae, the fluorescent rattle may have first evolved to be used to blend in with the environment to make capturing prey easier and not as a defense mechanism (shaking it to make a warning sound) (Laurence & Mendyk, 2021). 

Article Review: Do pit vipers assess their venom? Defensive tactics of Deinagkistrodon acutus shift with changed venom reserve

Article Title: Do pit vipers assess their venom? Defensive tactics of Deinagkistrodon acutus shift with changed venom reserves

Authors: Yige Piao, Ge Yao, Hui Jiang, Song Huang, Feng Huang, Yezhong Tang, Yang Liu, Qin Chen

Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041010121001732?casa_token=4V_cpYok1GsAAAAA:fTvJRSIdpo2P6oz7QYPest7B1ShkxsUdTIl0o7GdDVeBeVqltcQMzZPd_b0QXDb5l_DdPvCvxG8#sec2

(Chinese moccasin) 

    The authors of this article observed whether pit vipers assessed their venom and shifted their defense tactics based on their venom availability. They took twenty three juvenile Deinagkistrodon acutus (11 males and 12 females) from a snake institute in China. The snakes were exposed to two different stimuli. The first stimulus was a venom expenditure test. They rolled a white paper towel into a cylinder and poked the snakes head once every second until a bite occurred. This was designed to expend the snakes’ venom reserve and was conducted on both a low venom group and a replenishing venom group. The stimulus was weighed before and after the bite on a balance to estimate the amount of venom injected. The second stimulus was a series of behavior trials and was conducted on the low venom group, replenishing venom group and a normal venom group. They stimulus was a piece of medical silicon skin half and was used to mimic predation events, escalating the level of risk over time. The experiment was executed in three consecutive stages, each lasting 60 s. The stimulus was first moved lateral before the subject’s head, then moved toward the subject’s head and backwards, and lastly the stimulus was used to poke the subject’s head once every second. The experiment was stopped at whatever stage the subject struck the stimulus. They observed three different behavioral patterns: active behaviors (attacks), warning behaviors (hiss/tail vibrations) and negative behaviors (retreat).

       The author’s found that the recorded venom amount between groups varied greatly. The maximum venom amount in a single bite was 380 mg, while the minimum amount was 8 mg. For the behavioral aspect of the experiment, they found that the normal venom group displayed a higher proportion of active strikes than both the replenishing and low venom group. They also found that the low venom group had a higher percentage of fleeing behaviors than the two other groups. Warning behaviors were relatively similar between all three groups. 

    The findings of this study showed that venom availability has an influence on the defense tactics of these pit vipers. This experiment allows us to have a better understanding of how these snakes preserve their fitness. They are able to assess their venom amount and make instinctual decisions on what would be best for them physically when it comes to defending themselves against predatory situations. The results are interesting because not many individuals would think that a snake would have the ability to make a decision on when they strike based off how much venom they possess. It’s often assumed snakes strike at any sign of threat. 

Morphological and performance modifications in the world’s only marine lizard, the Galápagos marine iguana, Amblyrhynchus cristatus

Amblyrhynchus cristatus, or the Galápagos marine iguana, is currently the only species of marine lizard that exists in the world. Native to the Galápagos, this spiky, dark-colored iguana spends its days sunning on the rocky shores and diving down to eat algae. This study conducted by Kate A Berry, Juan Pablo Muñoz-Pérez, Cristina P Vintimilla-Palacios, and Christofer J Clemente looked into the morphology and locomotory performance of Amblyrhynchus cristatus and compared it to their mainland relatives, Ctenosaura similis, the black spiny-tailed iguana, and Iguana iguana, the green iguana. The results showed that morphological and locomotory variation was actually more noticeable between subspecies of marine iguana than between species of iguana in general. These results add another layer to our understanding of reptile speciation and how quickly these animals can adapt to life in new environments. This happens often in the Galápagos, but it always fascinates me how species can be so similar yet still so different from island to island. 

Here is the link to the article for viewing:

https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/133/1/68/6179141?login=true

Class Mascot

 I also nominate Frankie the ribbon snake. He was the first snake captured by our class on the first field trip and really set the tone for the rest of the field trips. He maintained composure during handling and did not show much aggression. A very calm being, Frankie would represent our class well.

Article review:Agricultural contaminants in amphibian breeding ponds: Occurrence, risk and correlation with agricultural land use

 Agricultural contaminants in amphibian breeding ponds: Occurrence, risk and correlation with agricultural land use

T. Goessens a, ⁎, S. De Baere a , A. Deknock b , N. De Troyer b , R. Van Leeuwenberg c , A. Martel c , F. Pasmans c , P. Goethals b , L. Lens d , P. Spanoghe e , L. Vanhaecke f,g , S. Croubels

This article studies 5 different amphibian breeding ponds for the contamination of agrochemicals. They found 80 different compounds of heavy metals and pesticides. These compounds exceeded the concentrations lethal to D. magna and the grey treefrog H.versicolor. These compounds were not listed on the European watch list and the article suggests these would be good candidates to conduct longer studies. They also found a few azole fungicides and while they did not reach lethal levels they express concern for the sub lethal effects that would lead to a decrease in survivability in amphibians in these ponds. They also suggest some solutions to reduce runoff from agriculture, a good addition as it seems most just show a problem with no solutions. They also found that concentrations of these compounds varied based on the time of year the pond was checked, most likely due to the application of these compounds in agriculture only during a season. This article helps us understand a potential cause for the amphibian decline in recent years and allows for the government to regulate and reduce these compounds in amphibian breeding ponds. Acquiring more knowledge of how we are harming the environment and presenting solutions to reduce damage is very useful for amphibian conservation. 

Goessens, T., De Baere, S., Deknock, A., De Troyer, N., Van Leeuwenberg, R., Martel, A., Pasmans, F., Goethals, P., Lens, L., Spanoghe, P., Vanhaecke, L., & Croubels, S. (2022). Agricultural contaminants in amphibian breeding ponds: Occurrence, risk and correlation with agricultural land use. Science of The Total Environment, 806, 150661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150661 

Article Review: Ecology of Mediterranean house gecko

Ecology of the synanthropic mediterranean house gecko at their northern invasion front

Hemidactylus turcicus which are mediterranean house geckos, are native to southern Europe, northern Africa and were first documented in the U.S. in florida in 1910. The geckos were able to colonize because their eggs are highly desiccation tolerant. In the U.S. the mediterranean house gecko occupy building and other structure, basically are human commensals. The house geckos are also eurythermic meaning they are capable of broad thermal reaction norm to cope with seasonal thermal conditions. In this article they studied the aspects of ecology including the growth rate, reproduction, and body length in cooler more seasonal climates. The visual surveys were done at nighttime in Carbondale Illinois with temperatures ranging from N 37.72°, W 89.22° and were observed on a single building. Monthly surveys were done on eight buildings during sept 2019 and may-oct 2020. During the seven months of 19 sampling 444 were collected 555 times. the adults appeared more (n=202) following the juvenile (n=129) then the hatchling (n=113). There was no evidence of sexual size dimorphisms. The tail shedding wasn't related to SVL, a large amount of males had damaged tail even though they stated that adult sex doesn't influence tail status. The smaller individuals were growing faster than the adults which was shown in figure 7, but the sex or interaction didn't have a effect on this.

The research adds to our understanding because we are currently learning about the effect temperature has on reptiles and how they cope with the exposure. Ectoderms maintain their body temperature within the preferred temperature range to ensure near-peak performance without the risk of critical thermal limits. In their results the Mediterranean house gecko could attain the preferred temperature during the summer months but couldn't in autumn. The thermal condition suggest that their would be reduced body size, and performance including the sprint speed. The population continued to surplus possibly due to limitation of predators. For tail autonomy it is hypothesize that adults would have more time to autotomize. This work is interesting because it describes how house geckos can maintain their population even though their immune performance is effected. I would think that since they aren't able to sprint as fast, due to not being able store in as much air and heat, the population wouldn't continue to grow. The population maybe able to survive due to the placement of the building and the sun angle. If the house geckos bask during the day time while the sun is adding heat to the building, they could store in enough air to sprint and not waste energy at night. I've always wondered why reptiles such as lizards and geckos weren't normally seen on sidewalks but rather brick buildings. I personally think that sidewalks hold a lot of moisture and are currently hit with sun rays, but maybe the temperature of the sidewalks are too unbearable and highly traffic by humans would cause this reasoning. 

Dallas, Jason W., et al. “Ecology of the Synanthropic Mediterranean House Gecko (Hemidactylus Turcicus) at Their Northern Invasion Front.” Urban Ecosystems., vol. 25, no. 1, Chapman & Hall,, 2022, pp. 329–40, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01136-0.

Article review: Fang shape varies with ontogeny and sex in the venomous elapid snake Pseudonaja affinis

 Article review: Fang shape varies with ontogeny and sex in the venomous elapid snake Pseudonaja affinis

Author’s Name: Silke G. C. Cleuren, Matthew B. Patterson, David P. Hocking, Natalie M. Warburton, and Alistair R. Evans. 

Name of the journal: Journal of Morphology.

Link: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jmor.21442?casa_token=7l2MkeNr9WIAAAAA:sR3TuF2xzaSWIl0mEdY5aMGmMsNh3uWS_dW8GPhJ1WY9Y4SMEJEi5cC2YOAGZv1qhsCHcDL8ajWdYK-7&saml_referrer

Citation: Cleuren, S. G., Patterson, M. B., Hocking, D. P., Warburton, N. M., & Evans, A. R. (2022). Fang shape varies with ontogeny and sex in the venomous elapid snake Pseudonaja affinis. Journal of Morphology.

Fangs are important to snakes because they are needed for survival and to be able to hunt. This research answers the question if fangs are different between inexperienced juveniles or sexually mature adults within this species. The article focuses on examining the morphology of fangs between male and female adults and juveniles in the snake Pseudonaja affinis. They focused on tip sharpness in order to determine the force needed to puncture the skin of a mammal. In addition, fang robustness was tested in order to determine how much stress a fang can experience before fracturing. 

In the experiment, they collected 40 specimens from the species Pseudonaja affinis. They were divided into three groups: juveniles that feed on small reptiles, sub-adults that feed on middle sized reptiles, and adults that feed on mammals. Two fangs were measured and scanned for each specimen. At the end of the experiment, they found that tip sharpness was significantly different between adults and juveniles. Adults had sharper fangs in contrast to juveniles with no difference between female and male snakes . For fang robustness, there was a significant difference between males and females. Males exhibited slender fangs than did the females. On the other hand, subadults and juveniles seemed to have more robust fangs than adults. 

The overall results were that the fang morphology is different throughout their lifetime. They change as the snakes switch from a juvenile to an adult diet, making it easier for them to adapt to their ontogenetic diet later on. This research adds to our understanding of reptiles, in that there is a chance that each snake, especially venomous ones, can exhibit different fang morphology. I believe that this research is interesting because it gave me a different view on fangs and it makes me wonder if there are other species that have similar changes when transitioning from juvenile to adult. 

Article Review: Ontogeny of Strike Performance in Ball Pythons

 

Caitlyn Moss

Article Review: Ontogeny of Strike Performance in Ball Pythons

Article: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0944200620300398?via%3Dihub

Journal: Zoology 

Author: William G Ryerson

Published: March 24, 2020 

                The ontogenetic development of an animal is the most informative part of an animal's life. In this article, the author explored ontogenetic strike data. The author wanted to test the interactions between ontogeny and performance. Well known for many morphological shifts during feeding as they develop, snakes are considered "gape-limited" predators (Ryerson, 2020). This means that the prey they can capture is limited by the size of their mouth. However, morphological shifts, such as shifts in head size and skull morphology have evolved to benefit feeding. For example, in Nerodia, a colubrid genus, show a positive relationship between head length and muscle cross-sectional area, gape size, and skull bone size, indicating that as they developed, their feeding mechanics and morphology shifted. 

                In the experiments, ten ball pythons were purchased less than one month after hatching. All snakes were kept following guidelines from a previous paper. They were fed every two weeks and as they grew, so did their prey size. After each trial period, digital photographs were taken of the snake to determine morphological measurements and to determine if anything had changed. At the end of the experiment, the females had grown larger than the males compared to their snout-vent length, and head length and width had a negative association with their snout-vent length. 

                Over the course of the experiment, 347 feeding trials were conducted over all 10 ball pythons. Throughout the experiment, seven variables were tracked: strike duration, strike distance, maximum gape angle, maximum gape distance, velocity of gape opening, velocity of gape closing, and velocity of the strike. It was found that strike distance was positively associated with the velocity of the strike. 

                Throughout their development, it was found that ball pythons exhibit a decline in performance. Juvenile ball pythons strike with the same kinematics as other adult snakes and when they grew up, the strike velocity, maximum gape, gape opening velocity, and strike outcome declined. 

Article Review: Biofluorescence in Amphibians

 Salamanders and Other Amphibians are Aglow with Biofluorescence

Authors: Jennifer Y. Lamb and Matthew P. Davis
Journal: Scientific Reports
Published: February 27, 2020

    We are all aware of biofluorescence in the animal kingdom - mostly in invertebrates and aquatic fish. This is done when high energy wavelength of light, such as blue or ultra-violet, is absorbed by the body and is remitted as lower energy wavelengths of red, green, or lighter blues. Keep in mind that this is different from bioluminescence where light is emitted via a biological chemical reaction. But did you know that amphibians are perfectly capable of emitting light as well? This natural phenomenon is observed in the orders of Apoda, Anura, and Caudata. In the Caudata family, it is unknown if fluorescence occurs in the families Hypnobiidae and Rhyacotritonidae.  The researchers of this article sought to confirm this and to speculate on the functional benefits biofluorecence provides for amphibians. 

    

    To test this, 8 families of salamanders, 5 families of frogs, and 1 family of caecilians were obtained or observed from the field, pet stores, and aquariums. The specimens were then examined for the response they gave when exposed to blue (440-460 nm) and ultra-violet (360-380 nm) light. It was found that all species that were observed are biofluorescent. This includes all life stages, such as aquatic larvae. When exposed to the wavelengths described above, amphibians emitted back green to yellow light. Patterns of this is highly variable depending on pigmented stripes, spots, or mottling. However, pigmentation does not correlate to biofluorescence as amphibians lacking markings also fluoresce. Compare the patterns shown in the image below. Fortunately, it includes species we have already studied!

Anatomy also played a large part on which areas which were fluorescent or relatively brighter. It was observed that in some species, the ventral was brighter than the dorsal or there was specific prominence on bony digits, cloaca, or cutaneous mucus secretions. 

    The evidence from this study reveals that biofluorecence is not restricted within salamanders, frogs, and caecilians. This sheds some light on the evolutionary history of amphibians, as this trait is likely to be a synapomorphy of a recent common ancestor related to all individuals of this class. 

    In addition, it adds to the visual communication aspect of amphibians. Amphibian retinas have red rods that is highly sensitive to green light, and with the addition of green rods (which are sensitive to blue light), contribute to color discrimination and biofluorescent identification of the same species. It may also have a role in sexual selection and mate choice. As mentioned before, the highlighted cloacae may have an additive function in visual communication and behavior for the courtship of salamanders. 

    With this study, the researchers recommend further investigation of biofluorecence in amphibians, especially frogs and caecilians. There also needs to be additional research of the structural mechanisms involved in amphibian biofluorecence and should go further into what specific compound, protein, and/or metabolite is responsible for this trait.

Source:

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-59528-9#Sec3

Mascot Nominee: Ornate Box Turtle

From all our trips and field work, I believe that the most deserving herpe to be our mascot is the Ornate Box Turtle.

Terrapene ornata and populations of other turtle species are critically declining due various anthropogenic factors. For instance, this turtle is facing endangerment in the Great Plains due to developmental expansion, habitat fragmentation from roads, and over collection for sale. Interestingly and unfortunately, the Ornate Box Turtle is subject to illegal capture and trade with Asian countries who practice traditional medicine and treatments. Turtles such as these are now forced into protected sanctuaries to ensure their survival. I am sure our class is grateful to be able to learn about these issues and discover groups of people, especially the TSA, that dedicate their time and efforts towards the preservation and betterment of these threatened animals.    

Class Mascot Nominee :)

    I nominate the Thamnophis saurita (the ribbon snake), aka Frankie, as our class mascot! Frankie was found at our first field trip site and was a gentle soul! Everyone loved and was excited to have seen him and I believe he's a great representation of the attitude our classroom holds towards one another. (He's also the first animal we named during our time in the field, giving him even more reason to be our mascot!) :)