Article Review: Are amphibian and reptile hormones influenced by Geographic distribution and breeding season length?

Variation in Testosterone and Corticosterone in Amphibians and Reptiles: Relationships with Latitude, Elevation and Breeding Season Length

Cas Eikenaar, Jerry Husak, Camilo Escallon, Ignacio T. Moore

    Hormones are among the key players in endocrinology, physiology, morphology and behavior across all vertebrate taxa (Bentley, 2001) and this article demonstrates the differences of amphibian and reptile hormones based upon geographic distribution and breeding season lengths. I was surprised to say the very least that researchers would even consider latitude and elevation as factors regulating hormone concentrations in amphibians and reptiles. Hormones such as testosterone are produced in the testes of males but I would have never imagined that breeding season length would have any influence on the concentrations observed. Regardless of my expectations, I found this article to be not only relevant for hormonal observation but the authors did a great job of integrating their observations into several fields of study for herps.

    The authors explain the relevance of hormones in life history traits and emphasize the observed differences in testosterone and corticosterone levels when amphibians and reptiles partake in social interactions such as male-male competition, courtship and parental care. The hypotheses tested in the study were that in amphibians and reptiles, testosterone and baseline corticosterone concentrations would be positively correlated with latitude and elevation and negatively correlated with breeding season length. The authors provide good examples for justification including these observations as seen in birds. Breeding seasons in temperate habitats are much shorter and therefore much more energy is invested in a shorter breeding season because of the pressures to find a mate and there is more competition because these breeding seasons are usually synchronized. Observed differences in body size, clutch size and age of reproductive maturity have been documented in amphibians and reptiles at different latitudes and elevations so in my opinion these hypotheses have good justification with a strong literature base. 

    The authors combined the mean hormone concentrations of amphibians and reptiles from 163 studies worldwide and obtained all topographic information for all the collection sites. I found it interesting that the authors themselves did not mention collecting samples for this publication. Many of the samples were only collected from individuals during one breeding season and were not collected from the same sites over several seasons so perhaps the data used was not entirely representative of all reptile and amphibian hormone concentrations at different geographic distributions and breeding season lengths. The authors also only analyzed Lepidosaurid reptiles and so I think they should specify that their findings only apply to this taxa because the mating systems and geographic distributions of reptiles vary greatly. However, the authors used complex statistical analysis that was easy to interpret if you have any knowledge of p values and correlation coefficients. The samples were consistent as well and only those collected from free-living males that were calling (amphibians) or displaying territory defense (reptiles) were used. 

    The results for the amphibians in the study supported the hypotheses that testosterone and baseline corticosterone levels positively correlated with latitude of the study sites (Table 2). However, corticosterone was negatively correlated with elevation and there was no correlation between testosterone and elevation. In the lepidosaurs, there were no significant correlations between testosterone and corticosterone concentrations and elevation and latitude. For both Lepidosaurs and amphibians, both hormone concentrations were negatively correlated with breeding season length. For example, short breeding season amphibians in Tennessee often explosively breed (Scaphiopus, Rana, Bufo) and secondary sex characteristics (Figure 1) and calling behaviors are often mediated by high levels of testosterone (Darcy, 1980). Tropical amphibians with longer breeding seasons have lower testosterone levels primarily because there is less competition and selection pressure to breed at any given time.

Figure 1. Secondary sexual characteristic common in male
amphibians of temperate regions. Nuptial pads are used to grasp
 females during amplexus.

    The best part of this article is the discussion. The authors demonstrate the possible causes for the observed differences in hormone concentrations relative to latitude, elevation and breeding season length in amphibians and reptiles.  The results from this article can be used as a model for herpotologists from many backgrounds to predict the variations between and within species that have wide geographic distributions. For example, a researcher could potentially predict the differences in secondary sexual characteristics between several species of Bufo by analyzing hormone concentrations. Although after reading the article, I think that there is too much ambiguity to make any solid conclusions about hormone correlations and latitude, elevation and breeding season length for reptiles and more samples from multiple seasons and taxa are needed. The authors do admit that there may have been sampling error so I think this part of the study is to be continued. Despite some minor issues, it is science and this article still holds a good amount of relevant information. This article not only ties together physiology, behavior, endocrinology and ecology & evolution, but it provides a large scale understanding of the hormonal mechanisms underlying life history traits in amphibians and reptiles.

References:

1. Variation in Testosterone and Corticosterone in Amphibians and Reptiles: Relationships with Latitude, Elevation, and Breeding Season Length.

Cas Eikenaar, Jerry Husak, Camilo Escallón, and Ignacio T. Moore

The American Naturalist , Vol. 180, No. 5 (November 2012), pp. 642-654

Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/667891

2. Kelley, Darcy B. "Auditory and vocal nuclei in the frog brain concentrate sex hormones." Science (New York, NY) 207.4430 (1980): 553.

3. Bentley, P. J. "Sex Hormones in Vertebrates." eLS (2001).

A Review of "A brighter future for frogs? The influence of carotenoids on the health, developement and reproductive success of the red-eye tree frog.

          In the Animal Conservation Journal  article, A brighter future for frogs? The influence of carotenoids on the health, development and reproductive success of the red-eye tree frog, the authors Ogilvy, Preziosi, and Fidgett comment on the lack of research in respect to diet of frogs in captivity. They cite many sources that comment on the increasing risk of extinction among amphibians worldwide and note the importance of observing the diet of these species in captivity so as to provide protection and maintain diversity among threatened species worldwide (Stuart et al., 2004). In this particular study, Ogilvy et al. focused on the species Agalychnis callidryas, or the red-eye tree frog. Specifically they wanted to know the effects of carotenoids in the diet of the red-eye tree frogs in captivity, especially as they pertained to skin color and reproductive success.
          Overall there were four parts to this study. In part one, Ogilvy et al., sought to determine if the amount of carotenoids in the diet affected the growth rate in tadpoles. the examined a total of fifty- four tadpoles and three treatment groups. The first treatment group was a control diet consisting of no carotenoids , the second treatment group diet consisted of low carotenoids and the third treatment group diet consisted of high carotenoids. They determined that there was no significant difference in the growth or developmental rate of the tadpoles.
           The second part of this study focused on the post-metamorphic stage of the tadpoles in part one. The metamorphs from part one were split into two groups that included a similar number from each tadpole diet treatment. One group remained a control while the other group continued to be fed a high carotenoid post-metamorphic diet. It was determined that there was a significant difference in females reaction to a high carotenoid post-metamorphic  diet and male reaction to a high carotenoid post-metamorphic diet. Females on a high carotenoid post-metamorhic diet grew faster than control females and male controls did not differ in growth rate significantly from males fed a high carotenoid post-metamorphic diet.
            In part three of this study, Ogilvy et al. measured the fecundity of the females fed a high carotenoid post-metamorphic diet versus the control females fed a no carotenoid diet. They discovered four out of five females fed the high carotenoid diet produced fertile spawn, while none of the control females produced fertile spawn. This part of the study in particular has important implications for the diet of red-eye tree frogs in captivity. This shows that while it may not be obvious right away the implications of a high carotenoid diet in captivity, it has a great impact on the production of future generations of red-eye tree frogs.
            Finally, in part four of the study, at seventeen months post-metamorphosis frogs being fed the control were switched to a high-carotenoid diet while frogs being fed the high carotenoid diet were switched to a no carotenoid diet. It was discovered that despite these dietary changes post-metamorphosis no change in phenotype was discovered. However, previous to these seventeen months post-metamorphosis significant changes in phenotype were seen between those fed the high carotenoid diet and the control. Those fed the high carotenoid diet had redder toe-pads and brighter green coloring. These results suggest that there is a certain point post- metamorphosis (0-17 months) in which carotenoids are essential to the red-eye tree frog's diet.
       In conclusion, it was shown in this study by Ogilvy et. al that a high carotenoid diet is essential to red-eye tree frogs in captivity, especially females. It is most critical that the females receive a high carotenoid diet in the 0-17 months post- metamorphosis as it affects their coloration and their ability to mate and produce fertile offspring. These findings are particularly important in the world of conservation biology and herpetology as more and more amphibian species are threatened or endangered. It proves that more research needs to be done on a broader range of amphibians and other reptiles to ensure that we are able to preserve as many species as possible before they become endangered or extinct. This article was particularly fascinating to me as the red-eye tree frog is my favorite amphibian. I feel as if many people are familiar with the red-eye tree frog as it is a common subject for the cover of biology textbooks or nature posters. It would be a shame to lose such and adorable frog and more seriously such diversity, especially when it can be prevented so easily, with just minor adjustments to the females post-metamorphic diet.
                             
                                                               Work Cited
      Ogilvy, V., Preziosi, R.F., Fidgett, A.L. (2012). A brighter future for frogs? The influence of carotenoids on the health, development  and reproductive success of the red-eye tree frog. Animal Conservation. 15, 480-488.

Natural History: Trachemys scripta scripta

Found this little guy in a trap along with a common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina). Its common name is a yellowbelly slider. Turtles were always my favorite animals growing up probably because I watched a lot of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Unfortunately this one wasn’t as animated. It seemed to be pretty frightened the entire time and just stayed in its shell. It didn’t help that the snapping turtle attacked it. But it was cool to hold and see a real turtle. The yellowbelly slider is often mixed up with the chicken turtle (Deirochelys reticularia). An easy way to tell them apart is to compare the carapace and foreleg. The Chicken turtle has a longer and narrower carapace and has a broader yellow band on its forelimb.

The yellowbelly sliders have quite a large range for its habitat; it extends from southern Virginia to the panhandle of Florida. It is commonly found in ponds, slow moving rivers, marshes, and other similar bodies of water. This particular one was found in the Dixie Plantation of South Carolina in a dark body of water. This one also seems to be an adult female. Adult females tend to be 8 inches or larger and this one seems to be around 8 inches. However this is only an approximation for I don’t believe we measured this one. The smaller ones are either males or juvenile females. She also has a short thin tail which is another characteristic of females. The male tend to have long thick tails.

Twice the charm. Acris gryllus

On our first field trip for herpetology lab, everyone was filled with excitement, what would we find? The weather was sunny and prime for tracking amphibians who came out to bask in the warm sun.
On arrival at the Caw Caw County park in Charleston,SC, we were given a quick run down of the park and its goals, we were then allowed to explore it. Prior to the day, our professor, Dr. Welch and assistant Hannah had laid traps, to increase our capture efficiency. Everyone quickly ventured to a trap in hopes of making a discovery, the first of which was a greater siren(Siren lacertina). The next find was by Challiss Vick, a southern cricket frog, the discovery lifted the group and increased the thirst to achieve one.

Soon, in my peripherals i spotted a series of long jumps and knew this was my chance. After several bouts between my net and the frog, he was safely in my hands. To my surprise i immediately knew what species it was due to Challiss's previous find, i knew it was the other color possibility of the southern cricket frog.
The southern cricket frog(Acris gryllus), is  a tree frog that is identified by its dark triangle on top of its head accompanied with a dark stripe on its thigh between two well defined light stripes. The best identification key I utilized was its webbing. The amount of webbing on Acris gryllus' toes are less that that of the northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans).The southern cricket frog's first toe is partly free of webbing and the fourth(longest) toe has the last three joints (phalanges) free.Their habitat involves shallow and slow-moving waters like ponds, streams and lakes which makes use of their complex life cycle.
Southern cricket frog are very interesting amphibians because of the call, which sounds like rattle or metal clicker-gick,gick,gick,gick etc, this call can be used to attract mates and alert males of their presence. Also they are the best jumpers in amphibians.

The findings of two different colorations of Acris gryllus was one of the many great findings of this day and made everyone look forward to the next trip.

Peterson Field Guides: Reptiles and Amphibians Easter/Central North America; pp 528-530

http://srelherp.uga.edu/anurans/acrgry.htm

Vincent Essien

Herps in the News: Peru Surprises With Two New Amazing Species of Woodlizards

          A discovery has been made!  Two new species of woodlizards were found in the Peruvian jungles; Enyalioides azulae and Enyalioides binzayedi.  They were specifically found in Cordillera Azul National Park, a somewhat unexplored forest in Peru.  These species show sexual dimorphism through their color variations.  The males have a beautiful, bold green pattern with a dark brown and black background while the females do not have this beautiful green coloration.  

Even though these two new species share the same territory, there is a small difference in their altitude ranges.  This makes their biological differences very interesting to study from an evolutionary standpoint.  Enyalioides were once thought to have low species diversity.  Recently, however, more fieldwork has discovered an increase in species richness.  Three out of the ten known species have been described within the last five years!  This proves that as fieldwork increases, more and more species may be uncovered.  As a result of these discoveries, Peru now holds the greatest diversity of woodlizards.

 
     I personally thought that this news article was very interesting.  It showed how little we really know about the animals that live around us.  It is always very exciting when a new species is discovered and I thought that this story did a good job of covering the basic information of this new discovery.  

Tatiana Reinhardt



Link to the article:  http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/03/130320115224.htm

Journal referenced: 
Pablo Venegas, Omar Torres-Carvajal, Vilma Duran, Kevin de Queiroz. Two sympatric new species of woodlizards (Hoplocercinae, Enyalioides) from Cordillera Azul National Park in northeastern Peru.  ZooKeys, 2013; 277 

Natural History of the Eastern Ribbon Snake

Our first herpetology field trip took our class to the Caw Caw Interpretive Center.  Everyone seemed to have a good time wading through swamps, catching critters and seeing a Copperhead snake that had been hiding underneath a log.  The day was warm and the area was swampy, so I expected to find many amphibians out and about to catch and identify.  However, along with the many salamanders that we caught in the traps, we were also able to capture two Eastern Ribbon snakes!

As soon as we found them, it became clear that they were non-venomous, and either Garter or Ribbon snakes.  After consulting our handy field guides, we decided that they were Ribbon snakes, or Thamnophis sauritus.  We decided this because of the placement of the lateral line on the snake.  It was located on the third and fourth row of scales (counting up from the bottom), rather than the second and third, which would have told us that it was a Garter snake.

The first one that we found was the larger of the two and seemed to be an adult, based on its length.  However, the smaller one was not yet long enough to be with the average range of this specie's length.  It was probably a juvenile.  The smaller one was also pretty badly hurt.  It had a gaping wound in its side about halfway down, and was missing some skin in other places.  It looked as if something had tried to make it a meal. 

Although we did not attempt to identify the sex of the snakes, the females of this species tend to be larger than the males.  Both of the snakes were very active.  The larger one was caught in a trap that had been set the day before, but the smaller one was spotted, and then had to be corralled with nets until it was picked up by a brave student.  While holding them, they kept trying to get away or hide by climbing up our arms, under our sleeves.  They seemed to be more active than other snakes that we have held, but that could be because they were wild and the others had been handled by humans before. 

The Eastern Ribbon snake is located along the East Coast in the U.S., but it is especially abundant in the Southeast. All of South Carolina is included in its range, except for the very southern tip of the state. 

All in all, this was definitely and fun and successful herpetology field trip!!


Conant, Roger and Joseph T. Collins (1998).  Garter, Ribbon, and Lined Snakes:  Genus Thamnophis and Tropidoclonion.  In A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eatern and Central North America (pp. 310-324).  New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Pet African Dwarf Frogs Spreading Salmonella to Children

This article explores the outbreak of a specific Salmonella strain that has been sending children all over the country to the hospital. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have investigated these outbreaks and linked the disease to owners of or people who have handled pet African dwarf frogs (Hymenochirus boettgeri). The author explains that the strain of Salmonella thrives in the aquariums and habitats of these domesticated frogs. This topic is interesting because it is the first national CDC investigation linking amphibians with Salmonella. It is also a good way to inform parents that these pets may make their children ill. It’s always beneficial to know where certain diseases are coming from. Just knowing the disease is in these amphibian habitats and implementing hand washing will reduce the sickness caused by this specific strand. This article poses the questions, should these frogs continue to be domesticated? And Do other domestic amphibians and their habitats cause disease? This issue will have to be investigated further but at least the source of this particular sickness that has hit children nationwide has been identified and can now be controlled.

http://thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2013/03/11/pet-frogs-carrying-salmonella-make-kids-sick/?iref=allsearch

Natural History of the Marbled Salamander

Common Name: Marbled Salamander or “Banded Salamander”
Family Classification: Ambystomatidae
Genus and Species: Ambystoma opacum

             Marbled salamanders are a small and distinct species that can be found in a variety of moist habitats in forests and woodlands. They range on the east coast from southern New England to the northern part of Florida and as far west as Texas. The marbled salamander shown was found at Caw Caw County Park in Ravenel South Carolina just south of Charleston. However, the smaller larva marbled salamander was found at Dixie Plantation in Hollywood South Carolina. Adults spend most of their lifetime under logs, leaf litters or in burrows only emerging for breeding. This particular one was found underneath a log in the forest while the larvae were found in a swamp.  
            Marbled salamanders are usually 3-4 inches long and have light markings or crossbands along the length of the back and tail that vary in shape and arrangement. The body color and belly is typically black. What makes these salamanders unique is the contrast of the light colored bands against the black body. One way to distinguish males from females is by the color of the crossbands. Females have gray, silvery markings and males have white markings. The marbled salamander caught on the field trip is an adult female because of the gray or silver colored bands. A few characteristics to distinguish this species besides the patterns and colors are the costal grooves, eyelids, five toes, four fingers and a stout body with a large flattened head.  
            Marbled salamanders are nocturnal and extremely solitary except during breeding. Their diet consists of worms, slugs, snails, crickets, etc. The marbled salamanders breed in the fall and females lay clusters of eggs which hatch in the spring. Salamanders are metamorphic and once the eggs hatch the larvae will be in an aquatic environment for 5-9 months until metamorphosis is complete then the larvae leave the water as juveniles. The juveniles will reach maturity 15 months after leaving the water. To distinguish the marbled salamander larvae, they will have external gills, a tail fin, small light speckles, four limbs, and costal grooves. Encountering the few larvae marbled salamanders at Dixie Plantation was no surprise since the timing was right.              
            One the first few field trips our herpetology class found many local species that we were able to identify. The marbled salamander was one of my favorites that we found. Field trips are a great way to observe amphibians and reptiles in their natural environments around our city.

 

Peterson Field Guides: Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America; pp 433-434.

By; Chelsea Taylor
College of Charleston

"Not Slytherin... not Slytherin"

            Snakes have played a prominent role in ancient myths and folklore, representing a variety of qualities, from demonic temptation in Christianity to protection and sacredness in southeast Asian religion. J.K. Rowing chooses to capture the more negative and evil sentiment towards snakes in her Harry Potter series. Harry’s first interaction with snakes is during a trip to the herpetology building of the zoo where a boa constrictor catches his attention. In fact, the snake and he are communicating (in case you have not read the novels, Harry is a wizard), and Harry ends up inadvertently setting the snake free. In various discussion boards it has been proposed that this snake is in fact, Nagini, the snake that later becomes Voldemort’s (the dark wizard and Harry’s enemy) final horcrux (something that harbors a piece of your soul) and right-hand snake, though I was unable to confirm this.

            While the first introduction to snakes at the zoo was pretty neutral, soon after we are introduced to snakes through description and nomenclature of Hogwarts’s (the school of witchcraft and wizardry) houses. Slytherin house, which is represented by a serpent, is immediately portrayed as the house that produces dark wizards. Moreover, it is only dark wizards who can speak to snakes – a skill called Parseltongue – and that is in fact that hallmark of the Dark Lord himself, Voldemort. 

Slytherin House symbol

             In the second novel Young Lord Voldemort (Tom Riddle) revived himself to control the basalisk for the sake of killing muggle-born witches and wizards. Rowling draws from European folklore to describe the basalisk as follows:

"Of the many fearsome beasts and monsters that roam our land, there is none more curious or more deadly than the Basilisk, known also as the King of Serpents. This snake, which may reach gigantic size, and live many hundreds of years, is born from a chicken's egg, hatched beneath a toad. Its methods of killing are most wondrous, for aside from its deadly and venomous fangs, the Basilisk has a murderous stare, and all who are fixed with the beam of its eye shall suffer instant death. Spiders flee before the Basilisk, for it is their mortal enemy, and the Basilisk flees only from the crowing of the rooster, which is fatal to it." (Chamber of Secrets, 290)

Slytherin's basilisk

Fictional though deadly, this snake embodies every negative characteristic often ascribed to snakes – predatory (and for innocent muggle-borns, nonetheless), venomous, and associated with dark characters. It should be noted, however, that modern taxonomy uses the common name basilisk to describe lizards in the genus Basiliscus in the family Corytophanidae.

            Later in the novels, as readers learn more about Voldemort and the dark arts, we are introduced to his snake, Nagini. Nagini in Sanskrit means female snake, and she is first described as “a gigantic snake, at least twelve feet long” with a “diamond patterned tail” (Goblet of Fire, 12-13). In the movie, she is portrayed as a reticulated python (Python reticulates), however this portrayal is contrary to her characterization in the novels. Pythons are constrictors, whereas she proves to be venomous multiple times throughout the novels. Moreover, her venom in the fifth novel proves to not only be deadly but also prevents wounds from healing properly. There is talk on Harry Potter wiki, however, that the nature of Nagini being a horcurx (i.e. having a part of Voldemort’s soul in her) may be what makes her venomous, as well as adds magical powers in her venom. Overall, Rowling’s use of serpent's mythical connection to dark magic and evil reinforces their negative reputation, and has even made matters worse by prescribing exceedingly violent tendencies (and venom) into boas and fictional snakes.

Nagini, as portrayed in the movies

References

Harry Potter Wikia. Forum: The type of snake Nagini is. Retrieved from http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Forum:The_type_of_snake_Nagini_is

Harry Potter Wikia. Nagini. Retrieved from http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Nagini

Harry Potter Wikia. Basilisk. Retrieved from http://harrypotter.wikia.com/wiki/Basilisk

Rowling, J. K. (1999). Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books.

Rowling, J. K. (2000). Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books.

Wikipedia. Basiliscus. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basiliscus_(genus)

One snake you're healed, Two snakes you're dead

Herps in Society and Culture: The Winged Caduceus vs. The Single Serpent Staff

A wide variety of legends and representations throughout history have been passed on or borrowed and redefined, continuing such portrayal in subsequent cultures. Snakes are widely used and portrayed for various reasons and with various meanings, a favorite of mine is often seen in medical symbols of the modern day.

With so many meanings, ideas, and attitudes regarding the serpent it's easy to confuse these symbols from the visual impact of their similarities. I have recently learned this to be the case for the snakes I so often see in medicine.

As a prospective medical professional I myself have become accustomed to snakes around wands referring to medicine, however in recent classics courses and studying the Latin language I have learned more about classical mythology and the roots of such symbols. I had never really pondered on the connection much, but while translating Virgil's Aeneid for Latin class I encountered the mythological character Mercury, a Roman god who, among other roles, was responsible for guiding souls to the underworld. This role is a clear connection to the Greek god from which he was adapted, Hermes, the messenger god that likewise could travel between worlds (divine, mortal, & underworld). I became rather curious as to why the caduceus of the god who led mortal souls to the underworld is so often seen in medicine and also recalled reading something about the relevance of the medical symbols to healing on the first page of my herpetology book. I returned to my herpetology book to discover the mention of a Greek god I was not familiar with, Aesculapius. When researching Aesculapius I discovered that he was in fact the Greek god of healing, however he did not carry the winged caduceus entwined by two snakes as described in the text, rather he carried a staff with no wings and with a single snake wrapping around it.

 In further reading I came across an interesting survey that found that professional medical associations were more likely to use the staff of Asclepius (62% of those surveyed) while commercial organizations were more likely to use the caduceus of Hermes/Mercury (76% of those surveyed), though of the hospitals surveyed, only 37% used a staff of Asclepius versus 63% for the caduceus. From this analysis it seems the use of the caduceus is for the visual impact, which comes from the similarities to the appearance of the staff of Asclepius. Another theory I came across was that origins in the use of the winged caduceus of Hermes/ Mercury became linked to modern medicine through occult associations with Hermes as he became linked with alchemy sometime around the seventh century AD (apparently alchemists were referred to as sons of Hermes).

The symbols seen today are derived from the symbols of gods from classical mythology, showing that classical culture associated snakes with divine blessing and ability. To this day these same symbols, though for most part no longer thought of as symbols of gods, have been chosen to represent the art of healing; showing how these snakes still represent powerful ability, but of medicine rather than gods. Just as so many went to the serpent filled temples of Asclepius seeking healing from the gods, today so many seeking healing travel to modern medical establishments that are marked by his influence.

Hermes Greek Art Musee du Louvre, Paris (Above)

Source: http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x6733166/hermes_greek_art_musee_du_louvre_paris

 

Asclepius, God of Healing (above)

Source: http://www.classicsunveiled.com/mythnet/html/pics10.html

Above: Both the Caduceus of Hermes (left) and Staff of Asclepius (right)

Source:http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/publications/hopkins_medicine_magazine/hopkins_medicine_magazine_spring_summer_2011/caution_caduceus_in_error

Ambulance with single snake (above)

Source: http://www.thetattooforum.com/tatt-design-male-nurse-need-artist-please-t22617.html

Medcorp symbol as Caduceus of Hermes/Mercury (above)

Source:http://drblayney.com/Asclepius.html#Friedlander 

The Aesculapian Snake now known as Zamenis longissimus, previously Elaphe longissima, is a member of the Colubrinae subfamily of family Colubridae. According to the 3rd edition F. Harvey Pough Herpetology text book, Isolated populations of this species exist in central Europe, far north of the other known native populations. The book suggests that perhaps these central European populations are the descendents of the snakes that were kept at shrines of Asclepius 2,000 years ago.

The Aesculapian Snake

Source:http://www.animal-messages.com/animal_encounters.htm

 

 

Warning....Venomous Snake, Cottonmouth

        Cottonmouth seen in Caw Caw County Park

At Caw Caw County Park near Charleston, SC, I saw for the first time in the wild a venomous snake. Being from Michigan, I have never been worried about snakes. Michigan has only one venomous snake, the Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake. It is known commonly by many in Michigan as the ‘Michigan rattlesnake.’ One would think I would know something about this snake after spending the majority of my life in Michigan out in the wilderness in areas such as forest, farms, swamps, etc. I thought Michigan might have had one poisonous snake, but only with an online search did I know for sure. This is how little concern I had for snakes in Michigan. I’ve seen three black widow spiders in Michigan and that’s it for venomous interactions. I’d be more worried about cougar interactions than I would be with venomous snakes. As a child, I loved playing with snakes, frogs, turtles, and other animals. However, I found that as I grew older and the farther south I got, the less interested I was in snakes. South Carolina is home to far too many venomous snakes for me to be comfortable with. Now that I can identify the venomous snakes in South Carolina I can be sure to avoid them even more so than I will be avoiding all of the other snakes.

Our Herpetology lab started out by checking minnow traps that were set in the black water swamp beside the forest in the county park. Just before we prepared to move onto our next trap location, our lab assistant, Hannah, spotted a water snake near the bank of the swamp. Unfortunately, we were unable to net the snake. While looking for it, another student spotted a snake resting on a small branch in the same area as the first snake. The second snake dropped into the water and was not caught either. We picked up our gear and continued to the next location of minnow traps. We were walking down a flooded out path through the woods next to the marsh. Out of the corner of my eye I spotted a curled up snake which was a safe viewing distance away. The snake was quickly identified as an Eastern Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus. Being the first time I had seen a poisonous snake in the wild, I was very excited about spotting it. Not only was it positively identified as a venomous snake, but it just looked plain dangerous, majestic, but dangerous. It was a humbling experience.

By the time that I had seen the snake, it was already curled up in a defensive striking position. The cottonmouth may, when it feels threatened, open its mouth and expose the trait that earned it its name, a cotton white interior mouth. The cottonmouth is a large semi-aquatic pit viper with all of the characteristics of the pit viper family. They usually have a size of 24 to 48 inches. The snake I saw was curled up making it difficult to determine the size but a guess would call it average.  Behavior can help with the identification of these snakes that can be confused with water snakes. Cottonmouths often remain where they are or slowly retreat, whereas water snakes commonly retreat quickly or drop into the water. The cottonmouth has a variety of possible colors such as olive, black, or brown with a lighter colored belly. The snake has dark cross bands with more or less distinct borders often with a lighter color in the center. They also can have a small marking of the darker colored border in the lighter colored center. The snake we saw fit this description very well. Juveniles and young adults are usually disctinctly patterned and older adults may have little or no patterns, hinting that the snake we saw was not an old adult. Other characteristics that can help distinguish the cottonmouth from a water snake include: weakly keeled dorsal scales, single row of scales under tail, and single anal plate.

No distinguishing pattern, cotton white mouth

Another color variation, juvenile

The female cottonmouth produces 1-20 live young every two to three years. They are found in freshwater wetlands, lakes, rivers, cypress swamps, and wetlands. They are often found basking during the day near water, much like the one I saw. The cottonmouth can be an opportunistic feeder and uses ambush as well as active hunting strategies mostly at night for food. The cottonmouth eats a variety of animals such as: amphibians, lizards, snakes, small turtles, mammals, birds, and fish. An important thing I learned, especially with a boating trip planned down a river a month from now, is about the differences between the cottonmouth and water snakes. Including those already mentioned others can help differentiate the two. Cottonmouths are rarely found high in trees whereas that is where water snakes often bask. Also, Cottonmouths in the water can be recognized for the fact that most of their body is out of the water while swimming.  

Looking back on the experience, I am very thankful for it. On our next field experience, I was actively looking for snakes. Perhaps the reason was to avoid stepping on a poisonous snake, but I was excited to see some. I may not want to hold snakes but I can appreciate the fact that they are very cool and interesting creatures. I would have nothing wrong with having a small non venomous snake in a terrarium next to my array of aquariums, and my once-feral cat may agree. I do not, however, want to bump into one unexpectedly while hunting or boating. Luckily, though, I can now recognize the ones to be cautiously avoided in this area of the South.                                                                                                       References:

 Peterson Field Guides: Reptiles and Amphibians, Eastern/Central North America. 

http://srelherp.uga.edu/snakes/agkpis.htm

 Michigan DNR

Natural History of the Copperhead

The southern copperhead, or Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix, is a venomous reptile that is often found in many southern states. These serpents generally reside near swamps and streams, but can occasionally be found in other habitats. During a recent outing to Caw Caw County Park we found a young copperhead under a log (seen in included pictures). This geographic area is consistent with their normal habitats, in that it includes areas that are swamp-like. The copperhead we found appeared to be a juvenile, as it seemed to be of a short length and thin body. We were unable to determine its overall length, as it is a venomous reptile and handling it is very dangerous. This also made it impossible to determine the snakes gender, as a closer examination and measurement of length would be required.The snake appeared to be less than 45 centimeters in overall length, though that number is an estimate.
Upon turning over the log with the rake, the snake exhibited a defensive position. The snake coiled, decreasing exposed body, and kept its head poised towards those who had disrupted its hiding spot. The snake maintained this defensive position until the log was laid back on top of it. Though we maintained a safe distance, it is still an odd feeling standing so close to a venomous snake with a defensive posture.
This was a particularly exciting find for me, as I had never seen a live copperhead in person. I had always wanted to see a live copperhead and to be able to find one on our first field trip was a great surprise. Knowing how to identify them is important both for scientific reasons as well as safety.

The Practice of “Toad Licking”/“Toad Smoking” and its Consequences

Homer Simpson experimenting with toads

If you haven’t ever researched the topic of “Toad Licking”, I highly recommend you type the words into the search engine of Google and see what pops up. It has been used as a joke on multiple popular TV shows over the years, including Family Guy and The Simpsons. On the episode of Family Guy “Let’s Go to the Hop”, licking psychoactive toads became the newest drug craze at Meg and Chris Griffin’s high school. Although we laugh whenever it is mentioned in these shows, it is a sad fact that many individuals have experimented with licking poisonous toads in an attempt to experience these supposed hallucinogenic effects.

Colorado River toad, Bufo alvarius

During the 1980s, the Australian government actually was forced to outlaw the consumption of cane toad excretions. In the US, Bufo alvarius (Colorado River toad) has been rumored to produce these same effects. Multiple drug busts confiscating toad toxins were performed in the 60s. One of the active ingredients in toad excretions, bufotenine, is considered a controlled substance. It is a Schedule I drug according to the U.S. Drug Enforcement and Commonwealth of Australia as well as a Class A drug over in the UK. Bufotenine/Bufotenin contains the chemical 5-MeO-DMT, which is in the dimethylethanamine family and a natural-occurring hallucinogen similar to synthetically-made LSD. When consumed, a person will initially experience pupil dilation, increased heart rate, and see vibrating light along with fast-moving images. Bufotenine also constricts the blood vessels, which can lead to a rise in blood pressure. It blocks serotonin, an important neurotransmitter used for normal brain functioning. 

This leads to many questions going through my brain at once. Why on earth would someone even attempt ingesting a known toxic substance in order to get high, if an overdose could result in death? How would you even obtain the poison to begin with? While the effects are undoubtedly “far out”, ingesting this substance is an EXTREMELY risky venture, since they have no idea exactly what concentration of toxin they are consuming! An overdose can result in cardiac arrest and potentially death. Although it’s impossible to understand some people’s train of thought, it can be established how they extract the toxin in the first place. It actually isn’t harmful to the toad at all (one good thing about this). A person simply applies pressure to the toad’s parotid glands behind the eardrums, causing the milky poison to be excreted, which can either be directly licked off or dried and smoked in some cases.

Credit for discovering the hallucinogenic effects of Colorado River toad excretions can’t go to the drug experimenters of the 60s. South American Indian tribes also used this toxin in their religious ceremonies around 1150 B.C. Also, Matses/Mayoruna Indians of Brazil and Peru spread the bodily fluids of the Phyllomedusa bicolor (Giant Leaf Frog) over open wounds of their tribesmen, believing it gave them strength and increased hunting ability. While this did not aid in either of those goals, it probably didn’t help their chances of contracting gangrene or sepsis. On that note, I’d like to conclude that it is never a good idea to lick your toad, despite how fun the cartoons tell you it is.

Citations:

·         http://science.howstuffworks.com/zoology/reptiles-amphibians/hallucinogenic-frog1.htm

·         http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=10257#x395

The natural history of Amphiuma means

This beautiful creature is a salamander and belongs to the Family Aphuimidae. The genus and species name is Amphiuma means. The common name for this salamander is the two toed salamander because the salamander only has two toes. This picture was taken at Dixie Plantation, which is located in Hollywood South Carolina. The College of Charleston own's this land and offers the opportunity for different classes to go and explore the organisms that reside on it. This Amphiuma means was caught in a trap  laid in  black swamp water. This salamander is very aquatic. This is shown by the small limbs, the limbs would not be able to support this eightteen inch salamander on land for long. There are other paedomorphic traits  characterized in this salamander, and example would be the lack of eye lids. The size of the salamander and lack of gills makes one to believe this salamander is in a adult stage. This creature secreted a slime all over the hands of whoever came in contact with the organism, this slime made the organism almost impossible to hold. This salamander put up a huge fight when being removed from the trap, and made it apparent it did not like  being out of the water. This find on the field trip made me very excited because I could easily identify the salamander. The eel shape body, four small limbs, and  two toes on each limb made the identification very easy. I was a little uneasy about crossing the dark swamp water. I finally over came that fear and made it to the trap way across the water. Finding something so unique in the trap gave me a lot more confidence in going into the swamp water and made the trip so much more fun for me.

Natural History: My brief encounter with a coal skink (Eumeces anthracinus)

Over my spring break, some friends and I went to the southern Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina to go camping. We were about an hour outside of Asheville, NC at a place called Linville Gorge Wilderness located inside Pisgah National Forest. When we first found our camping spot, I heard rustling in the underbrush and went over to find this little guy:

He didn't seem too happy that we had invaded his sunny mountain spot, and tried to get away as I  took out my camera to take some pictures. I immediately noticed the red on his head that led me to believe he was a male. We have learned in our herpetology class that this coloring is an example of  sexual dimorphism, and happens to various species in the family Scincidae during breeding season. He was a bit too fast for me to catch, and scurried away from sight after a few close up shots.

It made sense that he would be out in the open since it was one of the first sunny, warm days of March. Our campsite was in a clearing that at the time was receiving a lot of sunlight, and the temperature had warmed to about 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Here is a picture of where we were to give you an idea of the environment:

Since reptiles are ectotherms, the skink was taking advantage of one of the first warm days of spring in order to warm his internal body temperature up.

After going home, I looked up all of the local species in family Scincidae in order to figure out what species I had seen. There are five species that can be found in North Carolina, including the ground skink, broadhead skink, five-lined skink, southeastern five-lined skink, and coal skink. I could immediately rule out the ground skink based on the stripes on the side of the skink that I found. The ground skink usually has a thick dark stripe on its side, but does not have the distinct white stripes on either side of the stripe. The size of the species I found was also larger, around 6-7 inches long with a heavier body than the ground skink. I could also rule out the broadhead skink because the shape of the head on the broadhead is much wider than the head of my skink. Out of the three species left, both of the five-lined species have thicker, light lines on their back. From this picture, you can see that the back of the species I found did not have these distinct, light stripes:

In addition, the southeastern five-lined skink is commonly found in sandy areas and coastal plains. You can see from the picture I took of the campsite that we were on a rocky mountain side, at an elevation of around 3000ft. After learning that coal skinks are commonly found in the southern mountains, and often prefer "rocky bluffs overlooking creek valleys (Wilson et al.)," I was sure that this was the species I had encountered. The coal skink (Eumeces anthracinus) usually has only four lines on its back, and the light stripes on the sides of the animal extend toward the tail. This fits the description of the species I found. This coal skink was clearly a male, since the sides of the head turn red at the beginning of breeding season, which takes place in late spring/ early summer.  This also indicates that the individual I found was not a juvenile because it was reproductively mature. 
  
Rustling in the underbrush throughout our stay on the mountainside was a constant reminder that we were sharing our campsite with a local. I was lucky to be able to find this species while I was camping, because we won't be encountering it on any of our herpetology field trips. Since all of our field trips are in the Charleston, South Carolina area, we will be far from the mountainous habitat of the coal skink. 

Citation: J. Willson, Y. Kornilev, W. Anderson, G. Connette and E. Eskew. Davidson Herpetology.
 http://www.herpsofnc.org/herps_of_NC/lizards/Eumant/Eum_ant.html