Chernobyl Tree Frogs

    Pablo Burraco, Raquel Fernanda Salla, and Germán Orizaola published a study in February of 2023 in Chemosphere that examined the relationship between current radiation levels in Chernobyl and the wildlife living there today, namely tree frogs. As the largest release of radiation to the environment in history, it is still having an impact on its surroundings today. However, the ecosystem is beginning to rebuild and even adapt to the radiation surrounding it. Because the liver deals with detoxification of the body in vertebrates, the study focused on melanomacrophage and hepatocyte morphology within the livers of Eastern tree frogs, which have been used to track long term effects. Because amphibians are particularly susceptible to damage via pollution in their environment, they are the ideal population to study. Chernobyl’s radiation is currently at 10% of what it was initially, so there has been lots of environmental change that can cause alterations within the liver.

Frogs captured were those actively calling. Once in the lab, they were examined morphologically, weighed, and measured. Then, they were euthanized and their liver was removed and placed into 70% ethanol. They looked under the microscope to examine each liver for lesions, levels of melanomacrophage, and other measurements. What they found was that the current levels of radiation in Chernobyl have no effect on the livers of tree frogs studied, which agrees with other studies of animals in the radiation zone that have begun to thrive in their environments. This suggests Chernobyl is continuing to heal itself. I think it is interesting and provides a lot of hope for other human damaged areas that the Earth is able to recover from even the worst nuclear accident of our history. Hopefully, that means with increased efforts we can also help it recover elsewhere and maybe ecosystems can become more resilient than we were afraid of.

Pablo Burraco, Raquel Fernanda Salla, Germán Orizaola, Exposure to ionizing radiation and liver histopathology in the tree frogs of Chornobyl (Ukraine), Chemosphere, Volume 315, 2023, 137753, ISSN 0045-6535, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.137753. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004565352300019X)

Effects of captivity and rewilding on amphibian skin microbiomes

Because of their very permeable skin Amphibians can do gas, water, and chemical exchange through their skin. This means Amphibians are more susceptible to hazardous pathogens in the environment, however, in the wild their skin microbiomes keep their immune systems healthy and protects against threats to their development and fertility. In general, captive animals in breeding and reintroduction programs are at risk because there are negative effects of being in a controlled environment, and in amphibians it disrupts their natural microbiomes and they are more likely to lose their resistance to disease which comes from environmental stressors in the wild. This is a problem because amphibians being bred in captivity may lose this ability and there is less confidence in the survivability in those being reintroduced to the wild. 

Samples of microbial DNA where collected representing 10 families and captive amphibians showed microbial diversity at a low rate compared to wild amphibians. This study found that slowly "re-wilding the biome" gives the skin microbiomes of amphibians the time it needs to acclimate from a controlled environment to a wild one and for the skin microbiome to shift from a captive microbial composition to a more wild kind. This paper aids in the very new discussion of how scientists can better handle conservation projects to fight against extinction of endangered animals and it is especially important for amphibians because they make up the greatest amount of species having to be taken into captivity compared to other vertebrates. 

https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/full-record/WOS:000808462800006

Authors: Kueneman, Jordan, Bletz, Molly, Becker, Matthew, Gratwicke, Brian, Garces, Orlando A., Hertz, Andreas, Holden, Whitney M., Ibanez, Roberto, Loudon, Andrew, McKenzie, Valerie, Parfrey, Laura, Sheafor, Brandon, Rollins-Smith, Louise A., Richards-Zawacki, Corinne, Voyles, Jamie, Woodhams, Douglas C.

Journal: Biological Conservation

ddfdf(preferably) or the article citation.

Uncertain future for global turtle populations in face of sea level rise

    The research article I chose for review is called Uncertain future for global sea turtle populations in face of sea level rise from the scientific reports journal. There were a total of ten authors in this paper with the first three being Marga L. Rivas, Emilio Rodriguez-Caballero, and Nicole Esteban (the rest can be found in the link at the end). In this research article, they talked about how climate change is accelerating sea level rise which can become a series problem for animals that rely on the coastal habitat. It focused on seven sea turtle rookeries with the five sea turtle species being leatherbacks, loggerheads, hawksbill, olive ridley, and green turtles. The areas that they picked were found in Australia, Florida, Cuba, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Dom. Rep. and St. Eustatius. The tools used in the research were Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and Coastal DEM predictions. These were used to run models to estimate the potential impact of flooding from sea level rise in these sea turtle rookies where nesting occurs. In Figure 1, two of the locations showed a 100% chance of vulnerability to sea turtle nests from sea level rise in both 2050 to 2100; Australia which will affect the green sea turtle and the Dominican Republic which will affect the green, hawksbill, and leatherback sea turtle. The five sea turtles were listed in order from vulnerable to critically endangered and the green sea turtle was the one at the highest risk making this very concerning. There were two other areas where the green sea turtle nests had either less or greater than a 50% chance of vulnerability to sea level rise. This is important data because these areas will likely be able to be used when the other two areas become unusable. Management plans can be made to combat with these future issues. It is also important that other areas used by green sea turtles for nesting are found and monitored for risks. Dominican Republic's vulnerability to sea rise also affects the leatherback sea turtle and hawksbill sea turtle. This could possibly lead to overlapping issues where different sea turtle species are competing for space. 

    Figure 4 shows heat maps of Florida (a), Cuba (b), and St. Eustatius (c) with nests that are mostly to be affected by flooding and the highest areas of concern. This is important for making sure that other areas are managed properly in order to protect them from future flooding. These three areas have the lowest chance of coastal flooding vulnerability but are important for loggerheads, leatherbacks, hawksbills, and most importantly green sea turtles. 

    I found this study important because it shows what areas are of the highest concern and can help with determining the proper management plans needed for each species. Ways to expand on this study would be to find other important rookeries for each species, especially the green sea turtles that are currently critically endangered, and determine which ones can still be preserved to some degree or may be completely lost to sea level rise according to future projections.  

Article Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-31467-1

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Class mascot (Northern glass frog)

Family: Centrolenidae

Genius: Hyalinobatrachium

Species: Hyalinobactrachium fleischmanni

I nominate the glass frog to be the mascot for out class for the reasons below:

- The glass frog has transparent/translucent skin which is why "glass" is in the common name for the frog. You are able to see through it's little body and see it's organs, bones, and beating heart. I think as a whole, we all came into this class pretty open-minded and ready to learn (even in my case lol). 

- These frogs are very unique in the terms of the places the frog chooses to reproduce at. Some lay their eggs on leaves that are over bodies of water. Nothing related to the reproduction of the frog is comparable to the class but we did visit some unique and interesting places- most with bodies of water.

- Just some lasting key points of interest: There are 150+ species of these frogs and they are all so cute. They live mainly in South and North America.

~ Christina Boykin

Natural History: Anaxyrus terrestris

 Nat

Natural History: Anaxyrus terrestris

By: Kyanna Gonzalez

    While at the Francis Marion National Forest on April 4th, 2023, an amphibian was discovered. The amphibian was quickly determined to be a frog due to the morphological features that distinguish it from a salamander or a caecilian. After examining the frog and using the field guide as a reference, it was determined that the frog discovered was Anaxyrus terrestris. Commonly named the southern toad, this frog is considered to be a part of the Bufonidae family due to the frog having parotid glands and warts on its body. The Bufonidae family contains four species; Anaxyrus americanus (American toad), Anaxyrus quercicus (oak toad), Anaxyrus terrestris (southern toad), and Anaxyrus fowleri (Fowler’s toad). Of the four species, there are only two locally in the area and these are oak toads and southern toads. At first glance, the frog was mistaken for an oak toad due to the predominant white mid-dorsal line on its body, a main characteristic of oak toads. After carefully examining the other characteristics of the frog discovered, it was found that the frog was not an oak toad but a southern toad due to the presence of predominant cranial crests. Predominant cranial crests on a toad are considered the key defining characteristic for southern toads as both oak toads and southern toads can have a predominant white mid-dorsal line. In terms of body size, oak toads are smaller than southern toads and the frog discovered was larger than the average size for an oak toad. 

    The form of reproduction and fertilization for Anaxyrus terrestris includes external fertilization where eggs are deposited in aquatic habitats like ponds and wetlands during spring breeding. Females of this species are larger than males but the sex of the frog discovered was not determined. Southern toads are terrestrial and can be found in wetland habitats. While mainly nocturnal, you can find a southern toad catching shade under a log or burrowed in the mud of a swampy habitat. Before being carefully released back to the area it was found, a picture of the southern toad was taken and can be seen attached below.

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The Affects of Altitude and Temperature on Snake Development

     This article, High temperatures limit developmental resilience to high-elevation hypoxia in the snake Natrix maura (Squamata: Colubridae) by Jérémie Souchet et al. set out to analyze the results of high altitude (low oxygen, hypoxia) and temperature on snake development. It was published in the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. This is very relevant in our modern climate as temperatures are rising. As a result, certain species are migrating to higher elevations where the temperatures are cooler, however the oxygen content is lower. This change in temperate and oxygen content could have serious impacts on development and fitness for every spices, not just snakes. 

    202 eggs were collected from 17 gravid female viperine snakes. 102 of the eggs were taken to the Observatory Midi-Pyrénées of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre which is located 2877 meters above sea level to test the effects of high-elevation hypoxia. 100 of the eggs remained at the Station d’Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique which is located at 436 meter above sea level which is low elevation with normal oxygen levels.

     At both locations, high elevation (EHE) and low elevation (LE), half the eggs were exposed to normal temperatures (C) of 24 C and half were exposed to high temperatures (H) of 32 C during embryonic development. Heart rate and mass were measured until hatching. Egg mass for both groups in high heat decreased from day one all the way to hatching, with the extreme high elevation high heat group decreasing the most. Both of the cool temperature groups gained mass until the 35 day mark where they then decreased a little. Heart rates for both hot groups spiked to over 100 beats per minute, with the low elevation going about 12 bpm greater. The heart rate for the cool group was very stable at around 55-60 bpm until hatching. This experiment shows that embryonic development is more effected by temperature than altitude. 

    After hatching, individuals were measured for snout-ventral length, and total body length. They were also weighted and sex determined. Hatchling success was also determined. All the juveniles were then placed a 20 C which has been a proven temperature for viperine survivorship success. Hatching success was between 90-94% in LEC, LEH, and EHEC, but the EHEH group had a rate of 74%. Elevation and temperature did not affect the sex rate. The cool temperature groups had incubation periods of about 30 days longer than the hot groups. The cold groups also retained about 30% more egg yolk than the hot groups. At 1 day post hatching, the EHEH group was 13% lighter than the other three treatment groups which were all about the same mass. Both cool groups were about 5% longer than the LEH group, which was about 5% longer than the EHEH group. 

    The final experiment was testing swimming speed in the different groups. The snakes were placed in a 5 cm deep swimming track that was 100 x 20 x 20 cm. The water was 25 C and the snakes were acclimated to the water for 30 minutes prior to recording times. The results were measured at 9 days post hatching and 25 days post hatching. Individuals from each group had swimming data recorded at both low and high altitudes at the 25 day mark. At the 9 day mark, individuals from the hot groups were faster than the cool groups, and the EHEH group was the fastest. The real take away is that individuals from the EHEH were the fastest overall when swimming in low elevation. It is predicted that the high temperature and low oxygen could have lowered the optimal temperature performance range. These results are also quite insightful because it's expected that the longer snakes will have the quicker swimming speed, but the smaller snakes from the hot groups were faster overall. 

    This article does a great job of showing the impacts that temperature and elevation have on snakes. These results can be used to estimate the effects on other reptiles. This research is very relevant currently as the affects of climate change are being felt world wide, and species are having to adapt their ecological roles in order to survive. We can clearly see that temperature plays a crucial role in embryonic development, hatching success, and the overall fitness of juveniles. Those changes paired with changes in oxygen content can have critical impacts on individuals. Research in this field needs to be continued to better understand the effects of climate change, and hopefully we can find ways to protect species that are being impacted the most. 

Article link: https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa182

Reversal of Brain Death after Snake Bite

Narang and Aggarwal's research paper goes into depth on the case of a 22-year-old patient who was bit by a snake on his ear whilst sleeping on the roof of his house in North India. He was admitted to the hospital with complaints of droopy eyelids (bilateral ptosis) and extreme drowsiness 1 hour after the bite. Upon arrival, he had shortness of breath and was put on assisted ventilation. Future tests showed that the patient's eye and brainstem reflexes were absent. Doctors proceeded to administer a polyvalent anti-snake venom, anticholinesterases, and other supportive therapy. Within 24hrs of the determination the patient was brain dead, he was reacting to light, fingers were flicking, and eventually was taken off the ventilator after 5 days.

I found this paper interesting because it really highlights not only the power of medicine but also the power of snakes - especially vipers. Their venom can cause brain death in humans, so I can only imagine the intense and instant death it causes within smaller creatures, such as mice. This case and research is important to study in assisting the information database on the effects of snake bites to the human body and the proven procedures to bring people back from their effects. 

Literature Referenced - Narang, Shiva, and Amitesh Aggarwal. “Reversible Brain Death: A Rare Manifestation of Snake Envenomation.” Indian Journal of Medical Specialities., vol. 14, no. 1, 2023, pp. 50–52, https://doi.org/10.4103/injms.injms_125_22.

Access Link - https://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T002&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&retrievalId=787ad377-0a84-490b-8d6d-14f67e6af872&hitCount=1&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA739044679&docType=Article&sort=RELEVANCE&contentSegment=ZONE-MOD1&prodId=AONE&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA739044679&searchId=R1&userGroupName=cofc_main&inPS=true

Class Mascot - Rainbow Snake

I nominate the Rainbow Snake (Farancia erytrogramma) for our Herpetology class mascot. Also known as the "Eel-mocassin", Rainbow snakes are a highly aquatic colubrid snake that is typically underneath vegetation and debris in cypress swamps, creeks, streams, and/or rivers. It is rarely seen due to its excellent hiding skills.

Rainbow snakes can be identified by their color - majorly black with three black stripes running down their backs. Their underbelly typically is reddish/pink with black spots. 

In reaching for more information about this beautiful snake, I discovered that they utilize apnea when they are swimming. Apnea is the process of pausing the breath, allowing the Rainbow snakes to be submerged for long periods of time. 

I think this would be an excellent representation of our class because they are such beautiful creatures, are typically not aggressive, and would produce an adventure in attempts to find them!

Sources

https://biologydictionary.net/rainbow-snake/

 https://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=AwrNOoofAUhkGXEStgmjzbkF;_ylu=c2VjA2ZwLWF0dHJpYgRzbGsDcnVybA--/RV=2/RE=1682469279/RO=11/RU=https%3a%2f%2fwww.floridamuseum.ufl.edu%2fflorida-snake-id%2fsnake%2frainbow-snake%2f/RK=2/RS=k60x7IAfHQrMRM5.texRMB0ds.c-

Class Mascot Nomination: Eastern Newt (Notopthalamus viridescens)

    The Eastern Newt, who we saw at Caw Caw Interpretive Center, is genuinely a fascinating specimen who I think is more than qualified to be our class mascot! As the only newt in South Carolina, they deserve some recognition. Although they are one of the widest-ranging salamanders in the U.S., SC is the only state with 3 of the 4 Eastern newt subspecies: Notopthalamus viridescens viridescens, Notopthalamus viridescens dorsalis, Notopthalamus viridescens louisianensis. Why wouldn't we brag about this?

My personal favorite, the Broken-Striped Newt (Notopthalamus viridescens dorsalis)
in the terrestrial eft stage

    If that alone doesn't convince you, consider their uniqueness even within the novelty of the order Caudata. As we know, Eastern Newts have a triphasic life cycle in which they go from aquatic larvae to terrestrial eft, then to an aquatic breeding adult. In the terrestrial eft, their skin becomes keratinous- which only newts can do. Further, Eastern Newts are highly toxic, especially in the eft stage. They secrete a neurochemical substance known as tetrodotoxin from the bumps seen on their skin- which is the same toxin found in pufferfish. This toxin is what you could call a bioweapon, even...so awesome! The eft's striking bright coloration is worthy of admiring. Additionally, the aquatic adults are quite eye-catching as well. They are lovely olive green, and males have fancy ribboned tails. As part of the Family Salimandridae, they are also capable of creating neotenic adults, but this is apparently rare and frequency can depend on subspecies. 

An attractive breeding adult male nominate Eastern Newt
 (Notopthalamus viridescens viridescens)

The belly of a breeding adult (super cute!)

    Anyhow, the Eastern Newt is a super cool animal and worthy of being the class mascot. I hope this information sparked your passion for newts!

Herps in Society & Culture: Salamanders born in fire?

    Do salamanders scare you? Well, me neither. In fact, they make me feel super fluffy. They are pretty squishy, exhibit some funny behaviors, and appeal to the eyes. What I'm going to share may be counterintuitive, then: pre-modern authors, particularly medieval bestiaries, thought that salamanders were terrifying. 

An attractive Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale)

    As early as the 4th century BCE, writers such as Aristotle already knew of salamanders. The earliest known depiction of salamanders comes from a Roman man named Pliny the Elder, an author and philosopher who wrote an encyclopedia titled Naturalis Historia, which documented the knowledge of his time. Pliny refers to the salamander "as an animal like a lizard in shape and with a body specked all over; it never comes out except during heavy showers and goes away the moment the weather becomes clear." So, we see here that Pliny makes an important distinction between lizards and salamanders. He also makes note of its ectothermy and some of the poisonous properties of salamanders, which we know to be true to some degree. But, Pliny makes these properties out to be way more fantastical than reality. He says, "It is so chilly that it puts out fire by its contact, in the same way as ice does. It vomits from its mouth a milky slaver [saliva], one touch of which on any part of the human body causes all the hair to drop off, and the portion touched changes its color and breaks out in a tetter." Excuse me, what?! He's being a total drama queen. 

An emblem that shows a fearsome, beast-like salamander

    As for salamanders putting out fires, Pliny found out the hard way that this wasn't true. Aristotle was the first to make that big claim, so Pliny put on his scientist cap and had to test that hypothesis. He threw a salamander into a fire. What happened is exactly what you think happened. Needless to say, Pliny the Elder was disappointed. What Aristotle probably observed were salamanders skittering away when the wet, rotting logs they lived in were thrown into fires. It's way cooler to imagine caudates as being born from the fire itself, though. Did you make the connection to Salamandra salamandra?

A depiction of an alchemist burning a salamander

    Then, we enter Medieval Europe. Salamanders became the highlight of fantasy tales, the mystical, and the occult. In those bestiaries, salamanders were depicted as being rather mythical and quixotic; some examples include "a satyr-like creature", "a worm penetrating flames", or "a winged dog". These descriptions are quite outlandish when we consider the actual salamanders we know and love. We have to wonder, what were the reasons behind these grandiose and outrageous depictions in the bestiaries? Well, Medieval bestiaries were usually living allegories- depictions of each animal's religious meaning. Supposedly, early Christians believed that the symbol of the salamander represented the immunity of Jesus to the devil's temptation and exposure to the fires of hell.

A strange depiction of a salamander in a Medieval bestiary

    If you took British Literature in high school like I did, you probably read Macbeth. There was a scene where some witches refer to the "eye of newt" as an ingredient for witch's brew. Luckily, they didn't actually maim any newts and this was just a metaphor for mustard seeds. But still, why did people associate them with dark magic? Well, that's just because they're herps. People learned that amphibians can cause sickness or death if ingested. You and I both know that you should not be licking amphibians. Further, we know that herpetofauna account for a lot of biomass, and during the breeding season, most of them have babies in mass. Back then, animals swarming was not cool- it meant evil. For context, imagine rats or locusts or whatever organisms that Europeans feared at the time and what a horde of them could mean. Furthermore, swamps were scary pits of black water that much of our herpetofauna love (thanks a lot, Linnaeus).

A Rough-Skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa)

    

    What this historical lore shows is that in the pre-modern era, salamanders were respected (albeit with fear) due to their adaptability. It is both entertaining and fascinating to learn about how dramatized salamanders were in books and art. In the modern era, we have learned to appreciate their intriguing breeding patterns, diverse ecological niches, and the variation in beautiful colors and patterns between species. Make sure to pay your homage to the fearsome salamander!

Sources: 

-https://www.wired.com/2014/08/fantastically-wrong-homicidal-salamander/#:~:text=In%20the%20first%20century%20AD,had%20claimed%20such%20creatures%20could.

-https://danq.me/2020/01/04/salamander/

-https://www.froglife.org/2020/10/27/halloween-folklore-and-myths/

Yellow bellied slider

 

    I recently went on a walk at West Ashley Park and found a small group of yellow belly sliders (Trachemys scripta) basking on small logs. They can be identified by their bright yellow plastron that has black and yellow striping. They have long nails/claws that help the turtle have a firm grasp of the ground. They can reach up to a foot in length. T. scripta is distributed locally in South Carolina and along the Eastern US coastal plain. 

    Their breeding season is typically runs from spring-fall and exhibit polygynandrous behavior - they can have multiple mates during a singular breeding season. Nesting females will typically lay from 6-10 eggs with incubation times lasting from two to three months. T. scripta is a terrestrial behavior, feeding on plants, insects, and small aquatic species (tadpoles, small fish, sometimes frogs). An interesting thing I found out about this species was that they are common in the aquatic pet industry and require sepcific conditions to be able to survive. 

    Though they were pretty covered up by the algae, I thought that it was so cool to see how they use basking for their advantage! They utilize the UV to help them process vitamin D and other metabolic processes. Also, being "ectotherms," they utilize the substrate (log) and external temperatures to regulate their metabolic processes, reminding me other testudines like loggerheads and leatherbacks, different species, but with very similar processes used in differing environments and for other purposes.

                                           Image source

Resources 

https://herpsofnc.org/yellow-bellied-slider/

https://www.reptilecentre.com/info-yellow-bellied-slider-care-sheet#:~:text=A%20good%20basking%20spot%20should,order%20to%20synthesise%20vitamin%20D.

Mascot

    I nominate the southern cricket frog,  Acris gryllus, to be our class mascot. They only occur in the southeast United States, and we have found many of them on our field trips. If it was our class mascot, maybe the next class could get extra points for finding the mascot in the wild on the field trips.

Class mascot

Our class mascot should be a spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum). They’re not only cute with their big eyes and fingers, but I think the fact that they have caudal autonomy (herp. physiology review bonus) is very cool! My advocating for the spotted salamander is based on their adorable looks and large part of ambystomatidae family.  

Image source