Herps in the News - Evolution of Venom in Cobras

A recent study has come out examining the evolution of venom in cobras and other characteristics these snakes possess which indicate that they are venomous, such as their hoods and warning colors. They found that these characteristics evolved around the same time which may be linked to the function of the venom; while other species may use venom for predation, cobras also use it as a defense mechanism so it makes sense that these warning strategies evolved at the same time.

Researchers say the next step is to do antivenom testing. They referred to snake bites as one of the most significant neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) which essentially means it is a problem that effects people in tropical, and generally poorer, countries and therefore it is not as profitable for companies to develop and administer aid. Antivenoms don't have long shelf lives and they have small markets, so if further research could improve the situation it would have a significant effect on those affected. They stated that many people who have been bit by these snakes have to undergo amputation, thus there is an associated economic burden. Snake bite victims in these impoverished areas may not be able to work as much or at all and also put less money back into the local economy as a result.

Sources:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170314111152.htm 

Natural History: Eastern Box Turtle

I have decided to write about the eastern box turtle or Terrapene carolina carolina. They are pretty common in our area and I remember seeing them in my friends’ backyard all the time when I was little. They can be very underrated animals. They have a lot of personality and interesting traits.

Over the summers I work with a large number of box turtles, but as with most animals (excluding humans) the babies are my favorites. The pictures I've included are of juvenile box turtles I care for. (They are much larger now but sadly I don't have any current photos).

Eastern box turtles have a large range from Florida all the way up to Maine and are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list. They prefer a forested environment with plenty of ground litter to hide in. They especially need this ground litter during hibernation, as it works as insulation to keep them warm.

These guys are still considered pretty small for their age (our estimated age at least) and are still too young to tell the sex. It is much easier to tell the sex of a box turtle when they have reached sexual maturity. The males have a concave plastron and red eyes at maturity.

These babies were brought to us in a sickly state and were not eating well. In the wild, eastern box turtles eat a variety of plant and animal materials, but while in captivity they eat primarily fruits, vegetables, and worms. In the photos you’ll see the box turtles’ soaking water is an odd color. Since the babies weren't eating well and not getting the nutrients they needed we added carrot juice and vitamins to their soaking water in the hopes they would ingest some.

Captive eastern box turtles are known to have much shorter lives than wild box turtles. This could be due to stress or, more likely, the lack of nutrients in their diet. They are considered a good pet but it is probably not as good for them as it is the owners. Many box turtles are taken out of the wild and then released when they are no longer wanted. There is some evidence that after having a wild box turtle in captivity for a long period of time they will no longer be able to survive in the wild.

A majority of the box turtles I care for in the summers are donated by families who no longer have time for the animal, and though I am very glad they do not release them into the wild, owners should still have a better grasp of the responsibility they have when taking an animal out of its environment.

Natural History of the Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus)

During our class trip to the Aquarium, we got to see one of my favorite animals ever- the Gopher Tortoise!

Gopher Tortoise at the SC Aquarium (look at that grumpy face! and shovel-like feet for digging).

The Gopher Tortoise is known as a keystone species- a species that other commensal animals, such as the Gopher Frog and Gopher Owl, depend on for protection as well as a contributor to the habitat for long-leaf pine forests allowing temperature stability in the burrows and providing more air circulation to the roots. They are the only tortoise found in the United States east of the Mississippi River and, unfortunately, their populations have greatly declined in association with the long-leaf pine forests being diminished (almost 95% gone!) due to burning, growing faster pine trees for cheaper wood, and "snake wrangling" by smoking out snakes in Gopher Tortoise burrows. With their populations historically expanding up into the northeast, they are now just dwindling within Florida and parts of Georgia and a few other eastern states. While the Aiken Gopher Tortoise Preserve exists in South Carolina, these tortoises are brought there from other states in hopes that the local population will rise.

Gopher Tortoise burrows are where the tortoise resides in most of its life, reaching up to 40 feet long and 10 feet beneath the ground. the burrows maintain a stable temperature and humidity as compared to the surface, providing excellent protection for other organisms during winter months and natural burns. The burrows allow the foliage in long-leaf pine forests, perfect for the herbivorous tortoises that eat the various roots and flowers, getting their water from the plants consumed. Cool fact: these animals can live up the 60 years

Diagram of a typical Gopher Tortoise burrow.

What a common burrow looks out in nature, notice the declining position of the opening and the pile of sand accumulated from being burrowed out.

Gopher Tortoises are being federally reviewed as threatened and currently are state threatened within Georgia, South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, and a species of concern in Florida.



Sources:
http://www.defenders.org/gopher-tortoise/basic-facts
http://www.gophertortoisecouncil.org/about-the-tortoise/
http://www.dnr.sc.gov/cwcs/pdf/GopherTortoise.pdf

Natural History of Carphophis amoenus (common worm snake)

During our trip to the Caw Caw Interpretive Center, I was really excited to get to look for snakes. Luckily, we were able to find several different species, one of which was the common worm snake. This individual was really small and slender, and was very active! Studying this species in the lab and looking at pictures of it online don't really do justice to how beautiful it is in person - the scales of the individual we saw in the field had a pinkish, almost pearlescent sheen to them. For a fossorial snake that spends its time tunneling in the dirt, it was surprisingly pretty!

The individual we found at Caw Caw

Not from our field trip, but this image better shows what the colors of the individual we found at Caw Caw looked like

Since this species is fossorial, you can notice the rounded, almost shovel-like head - these little guys are great at burrowing! They stay relatively small, like the one we found, and do look rather like worms (hence the common name). These common worm snakes like to live in wooded areas, like we saw at Caw Caw, and particularly like damp areas like old logs, soft damp soil, and loose leaves. These softer substrates make for great burrowing material, so that they can dig their way through and make tunnels. Since they live in the dirt, their diet is comprised of things like actual worms, and other smaller, softer, inverts they might find in the soil. 

The eastern common worm snake has a rather wide range, spanning the length of the Atlantic coast up as far as around New York, and inland as far as parts of Illinois, Arkansas, and Louisiana. They're classified as a species of least concern, and aren't threatened or endangered. Luckily for us, this makes it easy for us to observe them in the wild! 

I didn't know anything about this species before taking herpetology, and just being exposed to it in the lab didn't leave a huge impact on me. But getting to see one in the field really gave me a deeper appreciation for this species. Some of the larger local snakes like pine snakes, rat snakes, and king snakes have been a source of interest for me, but I had no idea that we had such beautiful little snakes hidden under the surface! Getting to find a worm snake out at Caw Caw really opened my eyes to what an interesting variety of snakes we have just within Charleston, and I have a new appreciation for some of the smaller less well known snakes!

Source: Hammerson, G.A. 2007. Carphophis amoenus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2007: e.T63738A12712149. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63738A12712149.en.

S. Leopard Frog

Last Tuesday at the South Carolina Aquarium we saw many herps of different shapes and sizes, all of there were interesting and I hated to leave one out; but for this blog I wanted to take the time to talk about one in particular that stood out to me.  The Southern Leopard frog is the herp that drew the most interest from me not only because of it’s unique features, patterns, and colorations but also because I vaguely remember my high school’s biology class.  Seeing one of these slimy critters torn apart and pronged by dissecting tools.  I’ve always had an interest in frogs, I’ve even owned my fair share of Green Tree Frogs but seeing the Southern Leopard Frog up close, and actually “alive” brought back subtle memories in making me want to become biologist in the first place.

There are several other leopard frogs scattered throughout the US, three in fact all with their own unique variations.  You have the Northern Leopard, that resides throughout the temperate regions of North America and patched through the western parts of the United States, the Rio Grande Leopard distributed from Central Texas all the way down to the Neotropics, as far as Nicaragua.  The Plains Leopard Frog resides throughout the great plains of the United States.

Their lifecycle consist of the usual frogs lifecycle where certain environmental conditions leads to their fertility, such as rainfall, humidity, and temperature.  In a frogs perspective fertility periods are kicked into gear during heavy amounts of rain.  From an tadpole to a frog they develop from a fully aquatic lifestyle to a semi aquatic lifestyle.  Their clutch size can vary between the hundreds in masses submerged under debris.  In general their lifespan ranges around 2-3 years.  One of the key features I use whenever identifying one in the wild is of course the leopard like spots.   Between the Pickerel Frog, the Southern Leopard Frog’s stripes aren’t as big, whereas the Southern frog spots are more scattered out.  Between Southern Leopard and Northern Leopard frogs, one of the things that help me identify them it is that in the Southern variation, the stripes that follow behind it’s eyes aren’t as thick as the Northern.

These organisms face an unusual pressure to their survival due to the rise of climate, which could lead to a redistribution off their habitat.  Every decision we make that has an impact in their territory forces a change of dietary resource availability for many of the things they frogs eat or what eats them.  It’s very important especially in humid locations like South Carolina that we keep our frog population stable because of our growing mosquito crisis.  Many contractors or whoever handles the scheduled mosquito sprays are forced to emit pesticides that could upset our bee population.  This is an unfortunate alternative instead of letting nature naturally combat pest.

Natural History: Hawksbill Sea Turtles

Every year, my family and I take a few scuba diving trips to exotic locations. This year, our first one was to Cozumel, Mexico. Although I saw a plethora of amazing and beautiful sea life, the one that stuck out was the Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata. I was diving in Cozumel and Cancun, every day, for a little less than a week. During this time, our dive group saw about 15 sea turtles. Though I was not really paying attention to the species of turtles at the time, from the videos and pictures our group got, I would estimate around half were definitely Hawksbills. I could not find a good video of it, but at one there was two of them swimming with the group of divers; it was a breathtaking experience. Seeing them in Cozumel is no surprise because they love the warm water and, in the adult and juvenile stage, tend to live in a coral reef environment and repeatedly rest at night in the same location for a long duration of time. If this habitat is not available they can be found in mangrove fringed bays and estuaries (Hawksbill Sea Turtle). The one that is in the video (see link below) was pretty large for his species, they typically range from one to three feet in length and their average weight is 180 pounds. The ones I saw were either just swimming or eating, though on a night dive we did see one tucked in a swim through, resting. During the day, that is pretty much all they do. Their diets consists of sea urchins, sea grasses and in particular, the ones that live on coral reefs enjoy eating sponges. As they get larger and older (they can live from at least 30 to 50 years), they start to only feed on certain types of sponges (Hawksbill Sea Turtle). They live mostly solitary lives, they commonly only meet with other of their species to mate. They become sexually mature around 2-4 years of age and are considered mature at around 20 years old. This type of sea turtle has been on the endangered species list since the 1970, they are often killed for their beautiful shells and in some remote locations, their meat is considered a delicacy. Another threat to their conservation is the rapid loss of their main habitat, coral reefs (Hawksbill Sea Turtle). I think they are really majestic creatures and I look forward to seeing more on future dives.

https://youtu.be/OT9t5Vc0I8A
Bibliography

Hawksbill Sea Turtles- https://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/Wildlife-Library/Amphibians-Reptiles-and-Fish/Sea-Turtles/Hawksbill-Turtle.aspx



       

Natural History: Copperhead

It was a sunny September day in Charleston, South Carolina. I was beginning my Sophomore year at the College. My roommate and I decided to take a day trip to Caw Caw Interpretive Center. We packed a lunch and spent the day exploring the natural areas at the park. We walked all around the woods and the old rice paddies. We searched for alligators but had no luck in finding any, though we did hear one flee into the water at one point. Our day was coming to an end and we were walking through the wooded area across from the picnic tables. Suddenly I hear my roommate yell "STOP!". I stop mid step. She then tells me to move my right foot up to where my left foot is. I do so without a question as she sounded very urgent in her commands. Then she tells me to turn around. I turn and see just how narrowly I evaded a dangerous encounter with a venomous snake. It was an adult, foot and a half long copperhead snake, Agkistrodon contortrix, that had been lying in the middle of the walkway. Its body is patterned with light and dark tan colors, making it look like another part of the dirt. These snakes inhabit much of the eastern United States, typically being found in deciduous forest and mixed woodlands. It is most common around rocky outcroppings and low-lying swampland. Theses snakes are pit vipers, which means they have venom, but the toxicity of the copperheads venom is relatively weak compared to other pit vipers. Typically if the animal does bite, it does so with a "warning bite" first. This kind of bite has a small amount of venom or none at all. Had I been bitten that sunny September day, it is very likely that I would have been completely fine. It is very rare for a copperhead bite to be fatal. All I can say about this encounter is that I am glad my roommate is more observant than I am!

Citation: Hartsuff, A. 2015. "Agkistrodon contortrix" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 26, 2017 at http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Agkistrodon_contortrix/

Natural History: Bitis gabonica

Over the years I've been to quite a few reptile shows/expos in South Carolina. At these exhibitions I've seen herps from all regions of the world, venomous and nonvenomous, of all colors and sizes. Of the myriad of herps that I've seen, there is one that always stands out to me: Bitis gabonica. Also known as the Gaboon Viper, Bitis Gabonica is an intimidating specimen from the rainforests and savannas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike the vipers found here, which are of the family Crotalinae, the Gaboon Viper belongs to Viperinae, a family known as the "true vipers". Members of this family do not have the heat sensing pit organs that our local pit vipers possess. Within Viperinae is the genus, Bitis, containing vipers from Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula. Members of this genus are well known for their ability to puff up their bodies when threatened. Other notable Bitis species are the Rhino Viper, Puff Adder, Horned Adder, and another personal favorite of mine, the Ethiopian Mountain Adder.

Most gabonica specimens that I've seen have been quite small, typically under 12 inches but with thick, muscular bodies. However, these vipers grow up to 5 feet and length and are the heaviest vipers in the world, even surpassing the Eastern Diamondback. Since Gaboon Vipers are ambush predators, they don't need to move much and are thus very compact/stout. This size and feeding behavior allows them to feed upon rodents and larger prey, including monkeys and even small antelope. Their heads are massive and contain the longest fangs of any snake, capable of delivering cytotoxic venom from enormous venom glands. Fortunately, this species rarely bites people and is known to have a somewhat docile disposition. Females and males can be told apart by the length of their fangs in relation to their body size: 6% for females and 12% for males. Also, females are typically a bit more plump for reproductive purposes and are viviparous. Between their raised nostrils are two small "horns" which are simply modified scales, a trait shared by several other members of Bitis. Possibly most striking about Bitis gabonica is their color and patterns consisting of a series of pale, rectangular blotches running down the center of the back, interspaced with dark, yellow-edged hourglass markings. 

While this viper is not local, there have been instances in which Gaboon Vipers have escaped their containment in the USA, with one instance even occurring in Mount Pleasant. Due to mistakes by handlers and irresponsible "pet" owners, dangerous reptiles often end up in areas where they do not belong. Thus, it is important to not only recognize venomous snakes in our area, but also in regions abroad. This may sound scary but the danger presented by this specimen may be one of the reasons I find myself so attracted to it, and the same has been said by many other B. gabonica enthusiasts. These beautiful vipers always make my heart skip a beat when I see them and continue to inspire me on my herp journey.

Natural History: Eastern Newt

On our field trip to Caw Caw Country Park, I pulled up one of the many traps to find a Notophthalmus viridescens - also known as the eastern newt.

Eastern newts can grow up to 5 inches and have a smooth slimy appearance with a distinctively yellow underside with speckled black spots. Upon first appearance we could tell that this newts’ belly appeared to be swollen/bloated. This led us to believe that this newt was an adult female who was reproductively active during the current breeding season. In fact, reproduction occurs during the late winter and into early spring for newts. Therefore, this information lines up with the observations made about the physical appearance.

The environment within Caw Caw County Park is perfect for eastern newts since they live in an aquatic environment that favors the muddy environment that marshes, ponds, and lakes can provide. This habitat provides the resources they need for their diet since they eat insects, snails, small amphibians, frog eggs, and other crustacean.

Overall it was a neat experience to be able to see a newt up close for the first time and in its natural habitat. This experience brought to life what we have learned in the classroom.

Below are pictures of both the female and a male newt. The female is to the left in both pictures.

Natural History of the Timber Rattlesnake

Over the past summer, I did research on contaminated sediment of a coastal flood plain found on the Savannah River Site. For my research, I had to go out in June and July and take sediment samples from beaver ponds and its contributing streams to find the source of contamination. While taking samples, I encountered many amphibians and reptiles, but the one that stood out most to me was coming across a timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus. At the time of my research, a snake was a snake to me, whether venomous or nonvenomous, and I wanted to stay as far away from them as I could. However, after I encountered a wide variety of species I began to appreciate all snakes and the roles they play. Since I was not very fond of snakes at the time of my encounter and I knew it was a venomous snake, I did not want to get too close to it, which is explains the poor quality of my pictures that resulted from me zooming in as much as I could to get a picture. Since I did not examine the snake, it is difficult to determine the sex, but due to its small body size (~50 cm) and lack of prominent rattles, it can be concluded that the snake was most likely a juvenile. The diet of these snakes consist mostly of small rodents when they are young and as they get larger so do their prey, which primarily consists of squirrels and rabbits. One of the key factors that sparked my respect for these snakes was how it acted in its natural habitat. It was coiled up near a stream in a warm, but shaded area. Even as I approached the snake to move to my sample site, it remained in its coil. I was expecting it to make advances, but only moved when we bumped it with a stick so we could sample in that spot without worry. Even when we did bump it, it did not strike nor become aggressive, but simply slithered away to an area where we both would not bother each other. It was no surprise that I came upon a timber rattlesnake while sampling because they are found in many parts of the United States, especially the southeastern part of the U.S. with the exception of most of Florida. Adults can range anywhere between 76-152 cm, and have been known to reach 183 cm, which is over 6 ft. Lucky for me, mine was fairly small with respects to its potential size. Timber rattlesnakes can be found in areas from swampland and floodplains to pine forests and mountainous habitats. These viviparous creatures typically give birth in the late summer/early fall, and since I encountered this one in June, I can further tell that the snake was most likely not a newborn. These snakes are known to be docile and remain coiled when approached in the wild, unless threatened, and the one I observed was just that. After seeing this snake and learning more about it, I am excited to get back in the field and hopefully come across a few more!

Sources:

Taylor, Rebecca. University of Georgia's Savannah River Ecology Laboratory Herpetolgoy Program.     Canebrake/Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus). http://srelherp.uga.edu/snakes/crohor.htm

Natural History - Herpe Field Trip to Caw Caw

On our field trip to Caw Caw County park we encountered numerous of reptiles and amphibians. At 1st I was nervous because it was actually really cold out, meaning many of the species might not be our or active. On our walk our professor asked us to check the traps, which honestly for me was the best part of this field trip. Walking in hip high deep water in the cold was some what relaxing and at the same time having that adrenaline rush, not knowing what we will find in these traps. Pulling one after another we collected a good amount of species. Exploring the 2nd area of traps! Some students went off looking under logs while the others (me as well) were checking the traps in even deeper swamp water. Couple minutes later I hear a classmate yelling we found some snakes! Me, not being a big fan of snakes was curious and wanted to take a look. The snake I wanted to focus on is the D. p. punctuatus or commonly known as the Southern Ring-Necked Snake. These types of snake species will grow to about 10-15 inches and would live in rocky, wooded hillsides; cut over areas with stones, logs, bark slabs; moist areas near swamps and springs; damp hill sides; and flat or poorly drained pinewoods. This being said Caw Caw County park would be a perfect habitat for the Southern Ring-Necked snake. The Southern Ring-Necked we found was about 6-7 inches in length and very thin. The sex of the snake was unknown and the life stage is between juvenile and adult due to its size. At start the Southern Ring-Necked was very aggressive and trying to bite our fingers (key word "trying"). But it started to cozy up to us and started to be comfortable with us holding it (maybe because we are warm and it was cold). At a quick glance of this snake I already knew what type of snake it was due to its body; it was yellow with rows of black spots. Another tell it was a Southern Ring-Necked was the ring on the head was interrupted where as the Northern Ring-Necked was completely around the head.
My overall experience of this field trip was AMAZING! Every week I can honestly say I will always look forward for Tuesday (lab day) or our field trip days. I learned and had so much fun with my classmates exploring Caw Caw County park find herps. I can not wait for our next field work!

PICTURES!!!!!!

This is a picture of the Southern Ring-Necked from my view. You can see how small or thin it is and it shows the ring on the head that is no complete. 

here is a side view of the Southern Ring-Necked snake. 

And this is the belly shot of it! Look how beautiful it looks! (it was posing for us btw!)

By: Christian Salvador

Tadpoles in Caw Caw County Park

On our recent field trip to Caw Caw County Park, we set up many traps just to see what sort of herps we could find out in the wild. My personal favorite herp that we caught was the Pig frog tadpole, Lithobates grylio. I honestly have never seen a tadpole outside of textbooks, so it was really interesting for me to see one, especially one that was so large (around two inches long). These tadpoles were found in the swampy part of the park where the traps were placed. Pig frog tadpoles are easily identified by the black color on the underside of their chin. Although I couldn’t identify if the tadpole was male or female, I could tell that it was beginning to go through metamorphosis because tiny forelimbs had started to appear. The tadpole was a very active swimmer in the small container of water that we placed it in before releasing it back into the wild. Most tadpoles are herbivorous or omnivorous in their diet. However, adult pig frogs normally consume insects and crustaceans instead of plant material. The pictures below are of the two tadpoles we found on the field trip and of an adult pig frog.

Acris gryllus or Southern Cricket Frog

This is a frequently encountered species in the Southeastern United States and is commonly found on the edges of ponds or lakes and feeds off of small insects and mosquitos.  It is distinguishable as a Cricket Frog by the bright line down it’s back and the dark triangle near its head.  Not clearly seen in this picture are its long hind limbs which distinguishes it as the Southern Cricket Frog.  They also have reduced webbing in their hind limbs and have reduced toepads.
The Southern Cricket Frog is part of the Family Hylidae and undergoes a complex life cycle with growth and metamorphosis from larvae to tadpole to juvenile and adult.  The only differences between juveniles and adults are their size and some juveniles may still be metamorphosing from their tadpole form and have a tail or reduced limbs.
As stated earlier this species is commonly found on the edges of ponds and lakes, but is also frequently found in marshy areas such as at Caw Caw County park where this individual was caught.  This is a juvenile that has completed metamorphosis or is an adult.  This species is extremely small and extremely quick. There were many different individuals escaping underfoot as our class was searching for different species. This individual in the picture was actually caught because of its coloration which I just happened to see as I was walking through the marshy areas surrounding the pier at Caw Caw County Park.  The opportunity to learn with hands on experience by looking at the different species and trying to determine species from the different distinguishing characteristics was both fun and beneficial.

The Big Blue Snakes of the South

The Big Blue Snakes of the South

On our recent trip to South Carolina Aquarium I, and perhaps several of you, learned about a certain large, blue/black snake for the first time. I am talking, of course, about the Eastern Indigo Snake, the big, blue beauties with the powerful bites. The male and female at the Aquarium were a delight to behold and as smooth as glass beads.

Their scientific name is Drymarchon couperi. The genus name is primarily Greek and translates to "lord of the forest." The species name however is based off the name of the man who brought it to the attention of the herpetologist who first described the snake. Herpetologist John Edwards Holbrook described the species after it was brought to him by James Hamilton Couper, a plantation owner.

The genus Drymarchon is comprised of indigo snakes from various regions throughout the America's. All members of the genus sport the same smooth, dark blue/black scales and imposing size to varying degrees. The Eastern Indigo is considered the longest snake in North America and can easily reach a length of 6-7 ft with the record being a whopping 9+ ft snake. Eastern Indigos tend to have a bit of red/orange coloration on their cheeks and throat, though it varies, in addition to their dark dorsal and ventral scales.

The specimens we saw at the Aquarium were captive bred and docile, but still incredibly strong and had a fairly imposing size. Eastern Indigos are Colubrids, but they are not constrictors as Josh demonstrated with the feeding of the female. They use their powerful jaws to hold and crush its prey to death, if not just eating it alive. They will eat any small animals they can manage and will even eat other snakes, being that often they are bigger than any other snakes they encounter. They are even known to be immune to the venom of North American rattlesnakes.

Eastern Indigos are oviparous and are not known to provide any care for the eggs or the young. Males are known to directly compete over females in a wrestling dance like the one in the video we watched in class. Evidence of this behavior is supported by the fact that males attain a slightly larger size than females, as we discussed in class. Both sexes are known to have multiple mates during breeding seasons.

Eastern Indigos are known to be highly mobile and wander large areas in search of prey in contrast to some other snakes who range a small territory or sit in wait for prey. This behavior leads to large amount of traveling and these snakes can inhabit a large variety of environments. The snakes seem to prefer areas with sandy soil, such as sandhill regions and riverbeds. Areas around pine forests are often a good place to go looking for an Eastern Indigo. They are found mostly in Florida and Georgia, but can be found in areas of Alabama and Mississippi as well. As we discussed at the Aquarium it is disputed as to whether the snakes were native to South Carolina at one point and are now rare to the point of non-existence. It is possible that Eastern Indigos were never native to South Carolina despite there being plenty of viable habitat in our state for the snake.

Overall I was stunned by these beautiful snakes, enough so to decide to write about them. I had never thought about the possibility of a feeding strategy for snakes that didn't involve venom or constriction. The impossible smoothness of the scales and docility stands at a stark contrast to their great size and often violent feeding behavior. The beautiful color of their scales made me think of the deep blue/black color of a high quality sapphire. I can safely say this is one of the most fascinating native species that I have come across and it will furthermore stand as one of my favorite snakes.